美國認知與智商網站：人類智力的進化。
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論壇地址：http://www./bbs/thread-233670-1-1.html Modern man appeared somewhere around 200,000 – 150,000 YBP as an already highly developed product of evolution.i From that point, he experienced evolutionary forces that further refined, enhanced, and diversified his mental prowess. The following discussion is a review of some aspects of this remarkable product of evolution.
作為高度進化的產物，現代人出現在20萬年到15萬年前。從那一刻起，進化的驅動力使得人類的智力更加精細，強大和多樣化。下面我們來回顧一下這一非凡的進化產物。
The nature of work in fields such as archeology, paleontology, and anthropology is to collect evidence, organize it, analyze it, and to then offer explanations that fit the findings. When the evidence is thin or misunderstood, attempts to explain it will be nothing more than incorrect, educated guesses. But as more and more is understood about the input information and the science behind these items, the explanations become more convincing. In the case of the evolution of human intelligence, a good bit is known about the sequence of species appearance, from early life forms through hominids. Intelligence has been studied for about a century and has benefited greatly from recent technologies, such as those used for brain imaging and electroencephalography (used to record brain activity in the form of electrical potentials). The knowledge base and availability of experimental options is, however, sparse enough that most of the explanations that can be offered are at least open to alternative formulations. With that in mind, this text will explore the explanations offered by some of the most eminent researchers in the field.
這些學科的本質，例如考古學、古生物學和人類學，是收集證據，組織證據，分析證據，然后提出一個合理的解釋。當證據不足或被曲解時，試圖去解釋它只會得到錯誤和所謂有根據的猜測。但是隨著了解的信息越來越多以及科學的發(fā)展，這些解釋變得越來越有說服力。至于人類智力的進化，長期以來我們把它作為一系列物種的表象來了解，從早期的生命形態(tài)到原始人類。智力已經被研究了大約一個世紀，這項研究也得益于現代科技，例如腦成像和腦電圖（用電勢構成來記錄腦活動）。但是，這些知識的基礎和實驗可行性是不夠充分的，至少現有的大部分解釋都有存在另一種構想的可能性?；谶@一點，這篇文章將要探討在這一領域最杰出的研究者所提出的一些解釋。
Intelligence developing in various species
不同物種的智力發(fā)展
Any quick review of the evolution of animals immediately reveals a pattern of increasing complexity and intelligence. On a between species basis, lower life forms (invertebrates) display the least sophisticated intelligence with increasing mental development in vertebrates, especially in birds and mammals. In some regards, animal intelligence can be shown to be increasing over time, with gains when species of greater complexity have appeared.
隨便觀察一下動物的進化就會發(fā)現這樣一個模式，動物們變得越來越復雜和聰明。以不同的物種為基礎，越低等的生命構成（無脊椎動物）相對于脊椎動物顯示了更低的智力，特別是鳥類和哺乳動物。從某些方面來說，動物的智力顯示出隨時間的推移越來越高，并伴隨著更加復雜的物種的出現而進一步提高。
Scientists have attempted to apply some order to the development of brainpower by looking at between-species brain size. As a rule, the species with the larger brain has more intelligent behavior, but not always. Small monkeys, for example, are more intelligent than typical grazing animals, but the monkeys have smaller brains. In order to correct for the body size differences, some researchers have opted to use the encephalization quotient (EQ), which is the ratio of brain size to body size.
科學家試圖通過觀察不同物種的腦容量來定義智力的發(fā)展水平。一般來說，擁有更大大腦的物種的行為更加聰明，但也不全是。例如小猴子，比典型的食草動物更加聰明，但是猴子的大腦更小。為了修正體型差異，一些研究人員使用腦化商數（EQ）（譯注：簡稱腦商，不是情商的EQ），就是大腦尺寸和體型尺寸的比例。
When only primates are being considered, total brain size gives a good indication of cognitive ability. Deaner, et al. (2007) found that neither EQ nor neocortex measures were superior predictors of intelligence. This finding is not so surprising, since a wide range of animal species were not considered. As an example of the comparisons that have been considered, the following is from Jerrison (1973):
當只考慮靈長類的時候，總腦量很好的顯示了認知能力。Deaner等人在2007年發(fā)現無論是EQ還是大腦皮質測量都不能很好地預測智力。這一發(fā)現并不奇怪，因為還有大量的物種沒有被考慮進來。已經有這樣一個比較的例子，下面的數據來自于Jerrison（1973）：
EQ
--
Chimp (male): 2.48 (56.7 kg body weight, 440 g brain weight)
Chimp (female): 2.17 (44.0 kg body weight, 325 g brain weight)
Gorilla (male): 1.53 (172.4 kg body weight, 570 g brain weight)
Gorilla (female): 1.76 (90.7 kg body weight, 426 g brain weight)
Human (male): 7.79 (55.5 kg body weight, 1361 g brain weight)
Human (female): 7.39 (51.5 kg body weight, 1228 g brain weight)
腦商
--
黑猩猩 (雄): 2.48 (56.7 公斤 , 440 克腦重)
黑猩猩(雌): 2.17 (44.0公斤, 325克腦重)
大猩猩 (雄): 1.53 (172.4公斤, 570克腦重)
大猩猩(雌): 1.76 (90.7公斤, 426克腦重)
人類 (男): 7.79 (55.5公斤, 1361克腦重)
(女): 7.39 (51.5公斤, 1228克腦重)
Hamilton (1935) selected rats for maze experiments, breeding bright and dull strains for 12 generations. The 12th generation maze bright and dull rats had brain weights that differed by 2.5 standard deviations. This experiment is a sort of accelerated test of evolutionary change, showing the dramatic association between brain size and cognitive ability.
Hamilton (1935)選擇老鼠做迷宮實驗，聰明的和笨的各繁育12代。在第12代笨的與聰明的老鼠腦重之間的差距是2.5個標準差。這一試驗屬于一系列的加速進化實驗，顯示了腦容量和認知能力之間明顯的聯系。
EQ has become the measurement of choice for comparisons between species, but the correction for body mass does not work well at the extremes. Very large animals, such as the manatee and rhinoceros, have EQs that are obviously misleading. The opposite happens among small species. Whales and elephants have brains that are multiples of the size of the human brain, hence the desire to correct for body size. But based on body size, the mouse has a much larger portion of its total weight accounted for by the brain.
腦商已經變成物種比較時可選的測量方法，但是在極端條件下體重修正的效果并不好。例如非常大的動物，像海?；蛳?，它們的腦商就會產生誤導。相反的也發(fā)生在非常小的物種之間。鯨魚和大象的大腦是人類的幾倍，因此需要體型修正。但是基于體型修正，老鼠的大腦所占的比重就大得多了。
Lynn (2006) compiled EQs for living and extinct species, normalized against average living mammals. The following is taken from his larger list:
Lynn (2006)編譯了現存的和已滅絕的物種的腦商表，標準化了現存物種的平均值。下面是從他的大表中摘出的：
EQ
--
Fish and reptiles .05
Average mammals 1.00
First birds 0.10 150 MYA
Average birds .75
First monkeys 1.00 30 MYA
Squirrel 2.80
Rhesus 2.10
Baboon 2.40
Gorilla 2.00
Orangutan 2.40
Chimpanzee 2.60
Homo habilis 4.30 4.3 MYA
Homo erectus 5.00 0.7 MYA
Homo sapiens 7.50
腦商
--
魚和爬行類 .05
哺乳類平均 1.00
早期鳥類 0.10 150 百萬年前
鳥類平均 .75
早期猴子 1.00 30百萬年前
松鼠 2.80
恒河猴 2.10
狒狒 2.40
大猩猩 2.00
紅毛猩猩 2.40
黑猩猩 2.60
能人 4.30 4.3百萬年前
直立人 5.00 0.7百萬年前
智人 7.50
[Anyone who has tried to keep squirrels out of a bird feeder can appreciate their high EQ. Whether it accurately places them relative to other species or not, the little critters are ingenious.]
任何試圖將松鼠擋在喂鳥器外面的人都會領略它們的高腦商。不管它們相對于其它物種的排位如何，這些小東西都是相當機靈的。
The extinct species from the list (birds, monkeys, and hominids) had smaller EQs than their later counterparts. This is consistent with the general trend seen in many branches of the evolutionary tree.
Lee (2007) has compiled a list of species and estimated their rank order standing with respect to man. The list below includes only familiar species and their most recent common ancestor with man, as estimated by Goodman et al. (1999).
表中已經滅絕的物種（鳥、猴子和原始人）比他們的繼任者的腦商更小。這與我們看到的進化樹的許多分支的總體趨勢是一致的。
Lee (2007)編了一個物種表，估算了各個物種相對與人類的排位。下表中僅僅包含了人們熟悉的動物，他們與人類有最近的共同祖先，正如Goodman等人估算的那樣(1999)。
物種 g* MRCA**
Human人 1
Orangutan紅毛星星 2 14
Chimpanzee黑猩猩 3 6
Spider Monkey蜘蛛猴 4 40
Gorilla大猩猩 5 7
Gibbon長臂猿 12 18
Baboon狒狒 14 25
Ruffed Lemur白頸狐猴 17 63
Bush Baby夜猴 21 63
Squirrel Monkey松鼠猴 22 40
* g is used here to signify general mental ability rank, relative to man
g是相對與人類的總排名
** most recent common ancestor with man (millions of years ago)
與人類最近的共同祖先（百萬年前）
The above list shows the expected link between human intelligence and that of other primates and demonstrates the relatively wide range of dates for the most recent ancestors. The brain did not develop only by increasing size; it reconfigured, such that significant increases in relative size can be seen in the frontal and parietal lobes. The frontal lobes are associated with speech and gesture; the parietal cortex increased in size at the time more sophisticated tool use began (Geary, 2004).
上表顯示了人類智力與其他靈長類之間的聯系，顯示了與最近祖先之間的時間跨度相當廣。大腦并沒有僅僅是在變大；可以在額葉和頂葉看到顯著的增加。額葉和語言與手勢有關；頂葉皮層的增加是因為復雜工具的使用開始了(Geary, 2004)。
Hominid EQ started to increase about 1 million YBP and reached a state of linear increase, starting about 500,000 YBP, peaking about 35,000 to 20,000 YBP (Geary, 2004). The decline in EQ after that point (3 to 4%) may be due to a change in selection pressures, or to brain development that was not volume dependent.
原始人的腦商在100萬年以前開始增加，50萬年以前達到線性增加的狀態(tài)，3.5萬到2萬年以前達到頂峰(Geary, 2004)。在此之后腦商減小了3 到 4%，可能是由于選擇壓力改變，或者不再大量依賴大腦的發(fā)育。
Modern man
現代人
The date of the origin of modern man (Homo sapiens sapiens) has been frequently revised to accommodate new discoveries, dating, and understanding. It was once believed that modern man first appeared about 30,000 YBP,ii but each new number has pushed that date further back. It is common to see 200,000 YBP cited in various sources today; some put the date at 250,000 or more YBP.
現代人（晚期智人）的起源時間被經常修正去適應新的發(fā)現，年代測定和理解。一度認為現代人首次出現在3萬年前，但是新的數字不斷的刷新，時期不斷的往前推。今天依據各種來源普遍認為是20萬年前；有些把這一時期推到25萬年前，或更久。
Homo sapiens began to migrate northward, out of Africa, around 100,000 YBP. Migration branched in many directions, carrying humans to most regions of the globe. The details of the migration are relatively unimportant to the discussion of intelligence, except for the branch that took some Homo sapiens west to what is now Europe, and others east to what is now Asia. Over the course of the following years, humans who settled in various locations faced a variety of selection pressures, resulting in adaptive changes that affected the body as well as the brain.
智人向北遷徙，離開非洲，大約10萬年前。向很多不同的方向遷徙，把人類散布到全球的大部分地區(qū)。遷徙的細節(jié)對于智力的討論不是很重要，除了方向，他們向西來到今天歐洲所在地，其他的向東來到今天的亞洲。過去了很多年，定居在不同地區(qū)的人類面臨著不同的選擇壓力，這導致了適應性的改變，（這些改變）即作用于身體也作用于大腦。
The human brain evolved in both size and complexity. It is three times the size of the chimpanzee brain, but has only a 25% advantage in the number of neurons. Human brains have, however, much higher numbers of synapses and interconnecting branches (Jensen, 1998).
人類的大腦包括兩個方面的進化，尺寸和復雜度。人類的大腦有黑猩猩大腦的三倍大，但是在神經元數量上只領先25%。但是人類大腦有更多的元軸突和互相的連接(Jensen, 1998)。
Modern man may have experienced unusually beneficial mutations that boosted intellectual output on two occasions. The first was around the time of the cultural explosion around 35,000 to 40,000 YBP. The second may have been an ASPM variant, which is about 6,000 years old and is limited to European populations. ASPM is a gene that is a major determinant of brain size. It may or may not have boosted intelligence, but it appeared at a time of increased complexity in at least some population groupsiii (Cochran G. and Harpending, J., 2005b). In a recent study, Bates et al. (2008) examined four brain size related genes (ASPM, MCPH1, CDK5RAP2, and BRCA1) and found no connection with intelligence or language, perhaps implying that brain complexity (degree of arborization) is the dominant factor.
現代人可能經歷了不同尋常的有益的突變，有兩次促進了智力的發(fā)展。第一次是文化爆炸式發(fā)展時期，大約3.5萬年到4萬年前。第二次是ASPM突變，大約6000年前，但僅限于歐洲人口。ASPM是決定大腦尺寸的主要基因。ASPM是否會促進智力還不一定，但是至少給某些人一個增加大腦復雜性的機會（Cochran G. 和 Harpending, J., 2005）。Bates等人（2008）研究了四個與大腦尺寸有關的基因（ASPM, MCPH1, CDK5RAP2, 和 BRCA1），發(fā)現和智力、語言無關，這可能暗示大腦復雜性（樹突程度）才是決定性因素。
Language
語言
It is difficult to define the role played by language in the development of human species, or to determine the role language may have played in the evolution of human intelligence. It is obvious that many animal species communicate with each other and that such communication is frequently an aid to survival. Animal communication can serve as a way to warn others of danger, to identify a food source, to assemble a scattered family, and to coordinate migration. But in humans, language became complex, as the brain evolved, allowing the transfer of specific information for group control, planning, and the transfer of learning. The role played by language as an evolutionary factor is probably indirect, for example as a means of enhancing survival by group efforts, as a superior teaching tool, and as a general aid towards the accumulation of survival related knowledge.
在人類的發(fā)展過程中，語言所起的作用是難以定義的，也很難確定語言在人類智力進化中所扮演的角色。很明顯，許多物種都可以彼此交流，而這種交流對生存至關重要。動物的交流可以作為一種警告其他同伴有危險、標明食物地點、組成松散的家庭和協同遷徙的方式。但是對于人類，語言變得非常復雜，因為發(fā)達的大腦，使得可以傳輸特別的信息，例如團隊控制，計劃和知識傳遞。語言作為進化因素可能扮演了間接的角色，例如作為通過團隊合作增加生存幾率的手段，作為優(yōu)秀的教育工具，作為有助于與生存有關的知識的累積。
The anthropological record shows that as man passed through time, he acquired language, developed it into various increasingly complex forms, and invented means of writing his thoughts. In parallel with this, he devised the related vehicles of art and music and developed those into increasingly complex forms. In the least advanced population groups, much of this simply did not happen.
人類學的研究表明，在人類的漫長發(fā)展過程中，獲得了語言能力，并把它的形式發(fā)展得越來越復雜，并發(fā)明了把他們的思想書寫下來的手段。與此同時，人類發(fā)明了藝術和音樂，并把這些在形式上發(fā)展的越來越復雜。只有少數的先進人群發(fā)展出這些，在多數人群這些不會發(fā)生。
There are relatively few records of individuals who were denied language during maturation, but at least one well documented. It is known as the case of Isabel. From birth to age six, she lived, locked in an attic with her deaf-mute mother. She received food and shelter, but no language and no mental stimulation (not a single toy). When she was found and tested, her mental age was 1 year and 7 months (IQ of about 30). Over the interval from age 6 to 8, she caught up with her age peers and reached a mental age of 8. Thereafter, she matured at the same rate as her age peers and maintained a normal intelligence throughout her life (Jensen, 1998). This unusual case demonstrated both the role of language in normal development and the underlying physiological basis of intelligence. Isabel developed the neural structures during the first six years, that enabled her to rapidly learn language and to use it to catch up to her age peers. Clearly, language is essential to the development of and use of the brain, but it is not the thing that forms the brain, such that it can function normally.
很少有在發(fā)育過程中不接受語言學習的案例。但是至少有一個是記錄在案的，就是著名的伊莎貝爾案例。從出生到6歲，她與她的聾啞母親生活在封閉的閣樓里。她獲得食物和被褥，但是沒有語言和智力刺激（沒有任何玩具）。當她被發(fā)現并接受測試時，她的心理年齡只相當于1年零7個月（IQ大約30）。從6歲到8歲，她趕上了她的同齡人，她的心理年齡達到8歲。從次以后，她和她的同齡人同步長大成人，她一生都達到了普通人的智力水平(Jensen, 1998)。這個不尋常的案例揭示了語言在正常發(fā)育中的作用和智力潛在的生理基礎。伊莎貝爾在出生后的6年間完成了神經元構建，使她具備了快速學習語言的能力，并使用這一能力趕上了她的同齡人。很明顯，語言對于大腦發(fā)展和使用是必不可少的，但是它并不構建大腦，只是使它可以正常的行使功能。
Selection pressures
選擇壓力
Increasing intelligence has accompanied the development of higher order species and is especially obvious in primates. The factors that selected for intelligence presumably acted when higher intelligence was advantageous in sustaining successful reproduction cycles. Humans have been unusual among animal species in acting to alter their living conditions in order to survive, as opposed to conforming to the limitations established by various geographic ranges. When human species were unable to overcome natural forces, they perished, but some managed to survive by using their intelligence to store food and create tools, shelter, and protective garments to increase their survival odds. Consequently, variations in weather patterns, food supplies, and threats from animals and other humans most likely acted to kill fewer individuals with high intelligence than those with low intelligence.
高等生物的進化伴隨著智力的增長，靈長類則尤其明顯。當更高的智力在維持生育循環(huán)方面更有利時，智力的選擇因素開始起作用。在動物中人類是不同尋常的，他們?yōu)榱松娑淖儹h(huán)境，與適應既成事實的各種各樣的地理范圍限制完全相反。當人類不能駕馭自然之力時，他們就會滅亡，但是一些則通過使用他們的智慧存儲食物，制造工具、房屋和衣服增加他們的生存幾率。因此，在各種各樣的氣候環(huán)境中，獲取食物，應對動物威脅和在人類沖突聰明的個體被殺的也比低智力的少。
Cold as an evolutionary driver
寒冷是進化的動力
Winter temperatures have been the focus of much research with respect to the differentiation of intelligence among various human population groups. As people migrated into colder regions, they faced numerous cognitive challenges with respect to planning for winter food needs, developing warm clothing and shelter, hunting under adverse conditions, etc. The presumption is that when migrating groups failed to deal with winter adversity they did not live to continue the struggle. This severe culling of people favored those with higher intelligence.
在研究不同人類族群的智力差異時，冬季的溫度是集中研究的對象。當人類向寒冷的地區(qū)遷徙時，他們面臨著更多的認知挑戰(zhàn)，比如規(guī)劃冬季的實物需求，發(fā)展保暖的衣物和住所，在惡劣的條件下狩獵等等。假定不能夠應對惡劣冬季的移民將不能生存以繼續(xù)他們的挑戰(zhàn)。嚴厲的淘汰有利于高智力群體。
Beals, et al. (1984) examined 122 population groups on every continent and found a correlation of +.62 between cranial capacity and distance from the equator. One argument concerning the reason for the cranial capacity increase in colder climates is that the larger brainiv was necessary to enhance survival under the extreme pressure of cold winters (Jensen, 1998). If this is the actual driver, it may be only an accommodation to higher intelligence, rather than a cause of it. There is a notable exception to the relationship between brain size and intelligence. Arctic peoples have the largest mean brain size of any population group, but have a mean IQ of 91. Lynn (1987, 2006), Rushton (2005) and others credit the cold climate for the large brain volume; Lynn reasoned that the small population size of the Arctic Peoples greatly reduced their chances for other mutations necessary for higher intelligence. This exception and a small difference between mean brain volumes between Australian Aborigines (IQ 62) and Bushmen (IQ 54), relative to sub-Saharan Africans, demonstrated that all of the variance between population groups is not accounted for by brain volume; other biological differences are present and account for significant additional variance. Lynn (2006) presented the following to illustrate the relationships between winter temperatures, brain size, and intelligence:
Beals等人(1984)調查了每個大陸上共122個人群，并找出了顱骨容量與赤道距離的關聯，一個關于氣候越冷腦容量越大的原因的解釋是在嚴酷冬天的生存壓力下，更大的大腦對于生存下去是至關重要的(Jensen, 1998)。如果這是真正的驅動力，那也僅僅是高智商的適應性調節(jié)，而不是根本原因。有一個腦容量與智力相關性的例外例子。北極圈內的居民有著最大的腦容量，但是平均智商只有91。Lynn (1987, 2006), Rushton (2005)和其他人也都相信寒冷的氣候意味著更大的腦容量。Lynn推測北極區(qū)的居民因為種群數量太小，這樣極大的減小了產生高智力所必須的突變的機會。這個例外以及澳大利亞土著(IQ 62)與布希曼人(IQ 54)的比較，考慮到非洲撒哈拉沙漠以南人口腦容量與平均腦容量之間的微小差異，顯示了不同人群間的所有差異并不能都歸因于腦容量；其他的生物學差異是存在的，并解釋了其他的重大差異。 Lynn (2006)提出了如下內容，展示了冬季溫度、腦容量與智力的關系：
degrees C degrees C cc
Winter Temp Wurm Temp Brain size IQ
冬季氣溫 武木期氣溫 腦容量 智商
Arctic peoples北極區(qū)人 -15 -20 1,443 91
East Asians 東亞 -7 -12 1,416 105
Europeans 歐洲 0 -5 1,369 99
Native Americans 美洲原住民 7 5 1,366 86
S. Asian and N. Africans 南亞 北非 12 7 1,293 84
Wurm Temp = coldest winter monthly temperatures during the main Wurm glaciation, from approximately 28,000 to 10,000 YBP.
武木期溫度=主要的武木冰川期間的冬季月最低溫度，大約2.8萬到1萬年前。
In warm climates, the relationship between IQ and temperatures becomes irregular. For example, the population groups in sub-Saharan Africa show mean IQ differences, but these are not consistent with the mean temperatures in the associated geographical areas. This is consistent with the expectation that temperature does not act as an evolutionary driver in relatively warm areas, where early man survived by foraging. It is cold that is lethal and which places a premium on cognitive ability.
在溫暖的氣候里，智商與溫度的關系不再那么清晰。例如，撒哈拉以南的人口的平均智商是不同的，但與相關地理區(qū)域的平均溫度無關。在相對溫暖的地區(qū)，溫度就不再是進化動力了，那的先民們通過覓食就能生存。寒冷天氣是致命的，額外促進了認知能力。
A very strong marker for winter temperatures is skin color. Templer and Arikawa (2006) found that skin color (darkness) correlated at r = -0.85 between winter high temperatures and r = -0.75 with winter low temperatures (both at p < 0.001). The authors do not suggest that skin color is directly related to intelligence, although Jensen pointed out that the data may be a reflection of pleiotropy acting as at least a partial cause. In an earlier study, Jensen (1973) found a correlation of -0.20 between skin color and IQ on a within-group basis. Despite not attempting to imply causation, Templer and Arikawa did present the corresponding correlations between IQ and various other parameters. It is important to note that the correlations are on a nation by nation basis (129 countries), not on an individual basis:
冬季溫度的顯著標記是膚色。Templer 和 Arikawa (2006)發(fā)現膚色（深色）與冬季高氣溫的相關性為r = -0.85，與冬季低氣溫的相關性為r = -0.75（兩個的P都小于0.001）。專家不建議膚色與智商直接相關，雖然Jensen指出數據可能是基因多效性的反射，至少在局部起作用。在早期的研究中，Jensen (1973)發(fā)現在一個基礎群體內智商與膚色的相關度為-0.20。盡管不去試著暗示因果關系，Templer 和 Arikawa確實指出了智商和其他多種因素之間的相關性。需要注意這個相關性是基于國家的（129個國家），不是基于個體，這很重要。
correlation with IQ
智商相關性
Skin color 膚色 -0.90
Real GDP per capita 人均國內生產總值 0.74
Celsius temperature
攝氏度
winter high 冬季高 -0.74
winter low 冬季低 -0.63
summer high 夏季高 -0.30
summer low 夏季低 -0.31
Intelligence of Mongoloidsv
蒙古人種的智商
Various sources (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994; Lynn 1987, 2006; Jensen 1998; etc.) have reported estimates of mean Mongoloid intelligence at 3vi to 5 pointsvii above that of Caucasoids (European and of European descent). The early achievements of Mongoloids, especially in China, are well documented; one good example is Murray’s (2003) review of Chinese early accomplishments in mathematics, astronomy, invention, maritime expeditions, medicine, architecture, art, literature, and philosophy. The early start of Chinese culture was followed by various starts and stops that are similar to those seen in European history. The early appearance of advanced civilization in China is exactly what would be expected on the basis of the relatively high intelligence of the people.
各種資料來源(Herrnstein & Murray, 1994; Lynn 1987, 2006; Jensen 1998; 等等。)都顯示了蒙古人種的平均智商比高加索白人高3到5個點。蒙古人種的早期記錄，尤其是在中國，被完好的保存著；一個好的例子是Murray’s (2003)對中國早期在數學、天文、發(fā)明、航海探索、醫(yī)藥、建筑、藝術、文學和哲學成就的討論。中華文明有多個起源，與歐洲的歷史相似。中國先進文明的早期表象確實被認為是建立在相對高智商人群的基礎上。
The Mongoloid intelligence advantage is due to high spatial ability, which offsets a low verbal ability. During the Wurm glaciation, Mongoloids were trapped between ice advancing from the Himalayas in the south and from the Arctic in the north. The severe cold acted as a strong survival filter, leaving subsequent generations physically and mentally changed in ways that reduced body heat loss and enhanced hunting skills and shelter building and other tasks that were necessary to survival.
蒙古人種優(yōu)越的智力在于高的空間能力（譯注：空間想象能力是指通過想象去思考事物的具體形狀、位置。想的與事實是否一致，就是空間想象能力的體現。），以彌補低的語言能力。在武木冰河期，蒙古人被困在其南面推進中的喜馬拉雅冰河和其北面的北極冰河之間。嚴寒成為強大的生存過濾器，存活下來的后代在體能和智力都向這個方向演變，更少的體溫損失，增強狩獵技能，建造房屋和其他生存必須的任務方面。
Lynn (1987)的研究顯示蒙古人種的語言能力差4點和空間能力高6點（相對于高加索人種）。他繼續(xù)討論可能的進化壓力，這些都可以解釋這一特性。他推測在最后的冰河期（武木期），蒙古人種大量的依賴狩獵生存（就像愛斯基摩人的行為）。為了生存而進行的狩獵活動增強了空間能力，起到增進這一能力的進化壓力的作用。Lynn推測空間想象能力的增加可能是以語言能力為代價的，從字面上看是取代了大腦的語言中心論。他也指出，空間能力也有性別差異，男性更加優(yōu)秀，可能是由于男性作為獵人的緣故。
Lynn (1987)
Comment: The explanation offered by Lynn for the Mongoloid intelligence profile is obviously an idea that is difficult to prove. Since he published that idea in 1987, I asked him (in 2004) if there had been any work that confirmed or disproved the hypothesis. He said that there was nothing new, but was content that the idea was still reasonable. Interestingly, he did not mention the possibility of investigating the spatial and verbal abilities of Mongoloids via brain imaging.
Lynn (1987)
評論：Lynn對于蒙古智力特點的解釋顯然是很難證明的。自從他在1987年發(fā)表以來，我在2004年問他，是否有任何成果確認或反證這一假設。他說沒有任何新進展，但令人滿意的是這理論依然是合理的。有趣的是，他沒有提及通過腦影像來研究蒙古人種空間和語言能力的可能性。
Intelligence of Ashkenazi Jews
德系猶太人的智力
Ashkenazi Jews from Western Europe and the United Statesviii have the highest mean IQ of any population group. Various sources cite slightly different numbers, but Lynn’s (2006) estimate of a 10 point advantage relative to the British mean is probably accurate, to within a point or two. This advantage is concentrated in verbal and math, while the group is lower in visual-spatial ability (essentially the reverse of the Mongoloid profile). The very high rate of accomplishment among Ashkenazi Jews has been documented repeatedly. One example:
在西歐和美國的德系猶太人有所有族群里最高的智商。各種資料引用了略有不同的數據，但Lynn’s (2006)估計對于英國的平均值有10點的優(yōu)勢可能是精確的，誤差在1、2點以內。這個優(yōu)勢集中在語言和數學，而在視覺空間能力上則比較低（本質上來講與蒙古人種正好相反）。德系猶太人的高成就被反復大書特書。舉個例子：
“During the last three decades, Jews have made up 50% of the top two hundred intellectuals, 40 percent of American Nobel Prize Winners in science and economics, 20 percent of professors at the leading universities, 21 percent of high level civil servants, 40 percent of partners in the leading law firms in New York and Washington, 26% of the reporters, editors, and executives of the major print and broadcast media, 59 percent of the directors, writers, and producers of the fifty top-grossing motion pictures from 1965 to 1982, and 58 percent of directors, writers, and producers in two or more primetime television series.” [Lipset and Raab (2005) pp 26-27]
“最近的30年間，猶太人占前200名頂級知識分子的50%，美國科學與經濟諾貝爾獎得主的40%，高等學府教授的20%，高級公務員的21%，紐約和華盛頓高端律師事務所合伙人的40%，記者、編輯、廣播媒體和主要出版物高管的26%， 1965年到1982年最賣座的55部電影的制片人、導演、作者的59%，一個或更多黃金時段電視劇的導演、作者、制片人的58%”。 [Lipset 和 Raab (2005)](譯注：猶太人對話語權可怕的統治力)
The question naturally arises as to what accounts for this high mean. Weather is presumably not a factor, since there was no northward geographical separation relative to lower IQ groups with whom they lived. Several hypotheses have been argued: (1) the intentional practice of eugenics, (2) persecution, (3) genetic drift, and (4) a history of city life, as opposed to farming.
很自然會提出這樣的問題，什么導致其占如此高的比例？想來氣候應該不是原因，因為和他們生活在一起的低智商群體并沒有趨北地理隔離現象。有幾個可能和假設被提出：（1）刻意的優(yōu)生傳統，（2）遭受的迫害（3）基因漂變（4）長期都市生活，而不是務農。
Item 1 – Various sources have cited the relative isolation of the Ashkenazi population group. The group has had a history of less reproductive mixing with other groups than is typical of other population groups, especially those found in Europe. MacDonald (1994), for example, sees a closed breeding group, separated from others on religious grounds, and extrapolates that this history was largely responsible for the emergence of a high group intelligence. He uses the same argument, but applied as less isolation to explain the failure of Sephardic Jews to evolve along the Ashkenazi line.
項1—很多的信息源都提到德系猶太人群的相對隔離。在漫長的歷史中，這個種群很少像其他種群那樣與別的種群交叉繁殖，尤其是在歐洲。例如，麥克唐納德（1994），仔細研究了由于宗教原因而與其他族群隔離的近血源群體，推斷這一經歷很可能是高智商群體產生的原因。他使用同樣的理論來解釋不隔離的西班牙系猶太人的失敗。
The problem with this hypotheses is that too little genetic mixing, over a long time period, is likely to reduce the probability of the population group gaining advantageous genes. Lynn (2006) argued that there has always been at least some inter-marriage outside of the group and that even a relatively small amount of exogamy is sufficient to introduce desirable non-Jewish genes into the breeding group. If this is correct, it may imply that there is an optimal range of mixing and that the Ashkenazi history falls in that range.
這一理論的問題是太少的基因混合，在長期來看，很可能會減少獲得優(yōu)秀基因的概率。Lynn (2006)指出，其實一直是有一些異族通婚的，即使相對數量很少，也足以使得非猶太基因進入這個群體。如果這一理論正確，那就意味著有一個最優(yōu)的混血比例，而猶太人正好落在這一范圍內。
Part of the eugenics hypotheses is that Jews encouraged the brightest to have more children and discouraged duller individuals from retaining the Ashkenazi identity. While the argument may be correct and may be a contributing factor, it is very difficult to build a strong case that this is the primary driver of high intelligence among Ashkenazi Jews.
優(yōu)生學假設之一是猶太人鼓勵最聰明的人有更多的孩子，笨蛋不能保持猶太人的身份。理論可能是正確的，并起了部分作用，但是沒有強有力的案例能說明這是德系猶太人高智商的主要驅動力。
Item 2 – It is common knowledge that Jews have been persecuted in various parts of the world for a very long time, up to and including the present. The argument that persecution was an evolutionary driver is quite similar to the winter temperature argument that is generally applied to Europeans and East Asians. If smarter individuals had a higher probability of successful reproduction than others, the end effect is the same for both weather and persecution. In that regard, this hypothesis is particularly strong.
項2—眾所周知，猶太人在世界很多地方被長期迫害，一直到近現代。迫害在進化動力方面起的作用與冬季的溫度類似，這一點普遍適用于歐洲人和東亞人。如果聰明的個體有更高的幾率成功繁衍后代，作用的結果就與天氣和迫害類似。就這一點而言，這一假設是特別有力的。
Item 3 – Genetic drift is a driver of genetic composition when a small group is isolated and has a randomly selected set of genes. This may happen when a large fraction of the initial group is killed, or when a small subset of the initial group is geographically separated from the others. When an isolated group grows in numbers, the genes that were not present, as a matter of chance, will be lost, while those that were present will characterize the group as long as it remains isolated. No mutations are required, but a genetic bottleneck of sorts has to have occurred.
項—3當某個小群體被隔離時，基因漂變成為基因組合的驅動力，隨機的選擇基因片段。當大部分原始族群被殺時或一小部分因為地理因素被從原始族群中隔離出來時這種變化也可能發(fā)生。當隔離的群體數量增加時，有很大的機會那些沒有被帶出來的基因會丟失，那些帶出來的基因則會塑造這個族群，只要保持隔離狀態(tài)。沒有必須的突變，但是各種族群遺傳瓶頸效應將會出現。
This path also tends to increase inbreeding by amounts that are related to the size of the isolated group. Inbreeding has the potential of causing higher frequencies of recessive genetic diseases and is well documented as having a deleterious impact on intelligence (Jensen, 1998; Rushton and Jensen, 2005). If the genetic drift were accompanied by significant inbreeding, there would be opposing forces that might prevent the large magnitude IQ gains that have happened.
這一途徑也會導致大量同系繁殖，同系繁殖的規(guī)模和被隔離的族群人數有關。同系繁殖有引起更頻繁的隱性遺傳疾病的風險，對于智力的影響也是有害的(Jensen, 1998; Rushton 和 Jensen, 2005)。如果遺傳漂變伴隨明顯的同系繁殖，將會對大量高智商的產生起反作用。
Item 4 – This “city life” hypotheses argues that Ashkenazi Jews found themselves living in cities and performing jobs that were more mentally taxing than was typical of other groups which included large groups involved in farming and herding. It contends that this sustained history led Ashkenazi Jews to evolve in the direction of the intelligence requirements of their city jobs (mostly money lending – see Arkin, 1975). During the near famine conditions of the 10th and 11th centuries, Jews did not suffer and lived at the level of lower nobility (Roth, 2002).
項4—“城市生活”這一假設指出，德系猶太人發(fā)現他們自己生活在城里，做著比包括農民和牧民在內的其他群體更多的腦力勞動。德系猶太人朝著符合城市生活的智力要求進化（大部分從事借貸也，見Arkin，1975）。在10和11世紀的饑荒期間，猶太人并沒有受苦，過著低等貴族水平的生活(Roth, 2002)。
This hypothesis is argued by Cochran, et al. (2005a) along with an attempt to link various genetic diseases that are found among Ashkenazi Jews to the genes that cause high intelligence. The “city life” idea has to meet the same requirements as any other evolutionary explanation—that it contributed to a higher probability of achieving successful reproduction. It could well do that, or at least contribute to it. This line of reasoning is opposite to the weather and persecution hypotheses in that it is a positive contributor, while the other two are literally killers.
這一假設是由Cochran等人提出的(2005)，試圖將德系猶太人群中的遺傳病和高智商的基因聯系起來?！俺鞘猩睢边@一點與其他對進化的解釋面臨同樣的前提條件----必須有助于獲得更高的遺傳幾率。就一點來講它是起作用了，至少是有影響的。這一推理與氣候和迫害假設相反，因為它是正面作用，而其他兩項則從字面也可以看出來是通過減少人口來起作用。
One weakness of the “city life” explanation is that is assumes that there is a direction of causation from task to intelligence. If high intelligence was already present in a given group, that group might be expected to gravitate towards work that was complementary of the ability. That case applies in contemporary free markets, in which bright people are attracted to the challenges and rewards of high IQ jobs. But the situation that brought Ashkenazi Jews into money lending was directly related to their group status as non-Christians. They benefited from the Christian prohibition against usury. In short, there was a demand for lending, but no supply. This presents a somewhat different motivation for entry into a business area; it was not a matching of intellectual ability to a challenging occupation, but one of adapting to a social niche that was created by dictate. So, the job as a filter may have some credibility. Weinryb (1972) makes a case that wealthy Jews had a very high level of reproductive success, with large families, as well as a high standard of living (possibly contributing to a higher survival rate for their children).
城市生活之一解釋的一個問題是假設工作與智力有因果關系，如果高智商在指定的群體中已經出現，那么這個群體可能去做與這一能力相稱的工作。這一理論適用于當代的自由市場，聰明人做有挑戰(zhàn)性和高報酬的高智商工作。但是使德系猶太人從事借債工作的直接原因是他們的非基督徒身份。他們從基督徒禁止的高利貸行業(yè)獲利?？傊?，是有借債的要求，但是沒有人提供這項服務。這說明進入商業(yè)領域的動機有點不同。這與聰明人從事有挑戰(zhàn)的行業(yè)這一理論不一致，他們只是為了適應強制的社會生態(tài)。工作作為過濾器還是可信的。Weinryb (1972)做了一項研究，富有的猶太人有很高的生育率，和大家庭，生活水平也高（這一點使他們的孩子成活率較高）。
Intelligence of Caucasoids
高加索白人的智力
The major sub-groups among Caucasoids are Europeans, South Asians, and North Africans. These groups were described by anthropologists and were later confirmed by analysis of their genetic markers (Cavalli-Sforza, et al., 1994). These three major groups evolved higher intelligence as a function of their latitude: Europeans, IQ 100; South Asians, IQ 90; and North Africans, IQ 85. [Lynn (2006) gives the most detailed account, to date, of the global distribution of intelligence.]
高加索白人的主要亞種群是歐洲人，南亞人和北非人。人類學家定義了這一群體，又被最新的基因標記確認(Cavalli-Sforza, et al., 1994)。這三個主要族群依照緯度原則進化出了更高的智商：歐洲人智商是100；南亞人智商是90；北非人智商是85。[Lynn (2006)給出了詳細的清單，和迄今為止的全球智商分布圖。]
Much of the advancement in human civilization from the time of the Roman Empire to the past century has come from Caucasian groups, with increasing concentration in Europe. Sporre (1990) shows the progress of works of art, architecture, and science from the relatively barren paleolithic period to the present. The first large contributions appeared in early Egypt, spreading northward about 3,000 YBP and then flourishing in Europe for centuries. For whatever reasons, the largest number of significant developments no longer came from China, but were from Europeix and especially from four countries: Italy, France, England, and Germany. Murray (2003) attributes the flourishing of accomplishment to cultural and structural richness of principles, craft, and tools that was self-sustaining. Lynn (2006) speculated that this difference was the result of higher social conformity in East Asian countries. Such shifts in centers of innovation and creativity are related to the mean intelligence of the groups in question, but mostly in a necessary but not sufficient sense. Other factors, such as governmental structure (relative freedom to create, or pressure to comply with policy), the influence of religion, war, and general prosperity account for significant parts of what is seen historically as innovation and creativity.
很多的先進人類文明，從羅馬帝國到后來的幾個世紀，都來自高加索白人種群，多集中在歐洲。Sporre (1990)展示了藝術、建筑和科學從相對落后的舊石器時代到現代的發(fā)展進程。古埃及做出了第一個大的貢獻，3000年前開始向北傳遞，并在歐洲盛行了幾個世紀。無論什么原因，大多數重要發(fā)展不再來自中國，而是來自歐洲，特別是自四個國家：意大利、法國、英格蘭和德國。Murray (2003)把這些成就歸因于文化和豐富的建筑原則，精工細作和自力更生的工具。Lynn (2006)推測，這些不同是東亞國家較高的社會從眾性導致的結果。我們現在討論的平均智力對于創(chuàng)新來講是必要條件，但不是充分條件。其他的因素，例如政府結構（創(chuàng)新的相對自由，或者強迫墨守成規(guī)），地區(qū)影響，戰(zhàn)爭，和大體上的繁榮，從歷史上看都是創(chuàng)新的重要部分。
Intelligence of Negroids
黑人的智力
The populations that remained in Africa differentiated themselves geographically and genetically, as can be easily seen by comparing various sub-groups, such as Masai to Pygmies. Despite various between-group differences found among Negroids, none were subjected to the highly selective pressures of extreme cold and did not develop heat conserving body forms, large crania, or elevated intelligence. Lynn (2006) estimated that the mean IQ of sub-Saharan Africans is 67. Subgroups within this geographic area have reached various IQs that are associated with their breeding groups. Among the lowest of these, the Kalahari Bushmen have a mean IQ of 54 and have a slightly smaller brain size than other sub-Saharan Africans. Pygmies similarly have lower intelligence (IQ 54) than the other Negroid groups. Both Bushmen and Pygmies have lived as hunter-gatherers throughout their history.
非洲的人口從地理上和遺傳學上本身就有很大的不同，通過對比各種亞群體就可以發(fā)現這一點，例如馬賽人和俾格米人。盡管各個黑人種群之間存在差異，但都沒有經受極端寒冷的高選擇壓力的考驗，沒有發(fā)展出保存體溫的形式，大顱骨和高智力。Lynn (2006)估計南沙哈拉沙漠以南的非洲人的平均智商是67。在這一區(qū)域內，亞群體有不同的智商，而智商與族群血源有關。其中最低智商之一的是布希曼人，平均智商只有54，腦容量明顯小于其他撒哈拉以南的非洲人。俾格米人也與其相似，智商也是54，比其他黑人都低。布希曼人和俾格米人自古以來就是靠集體狩獵生存的。
r-K strategies
r-K策略
（譯注：ridical-Keep，r策略也就是激進策略，是機會主義者，很容易出現“突然的爆發(fā)和猛烈的破產”；K策略是保守策略，是保守主義者，當生存環(huán)境發(fā)生災變時，很難迅速恢復，如果再有競爭者抑制，就可能趨向滅絕。---度娘）
As animal species evolved and increased in complexity, the various species adopted different survival strategies, based on a trade-off between reproduction rates and survival rates. [E. O. Wilson (1975) first proposed what is now known as r-K Life History Theory.] This trade-off constitutes a spectrum that, at the extreme r-strategy end (considering vertebrates) is typified by fish and reptiles. These species survive by producing huge numbers of offspring, providing little or no care for them, and numerically overcoming the odds that all of them will be eaten or lost to the elements. At the opposite extreme, the K-strategy end, reproduction rates are very low, often consisting of one individual per reproductive cycle, but with a high survival rate that is enhanced by intense parental care and protection. The K-strategy is seen in vertebrates, where extreme examples include large mammals and primates. The terms r and K are taken from the equation for population growth:
正如物種進化并變得越來越復雜，基于繁殖率和生存率之間的權衡，不同的物種采取不同的生存策略。[E. O. Wilson (1975) 首次提出r-K生命史論]這些權衡就構成了一部圖譜，在r策略的極端典型是魚類和爬行類（只考慮脊椎動物）。（譯注：如果考慮所有動物那么采取最極端激進策略的是昆蟲）。這些物種通過生育大量的后代來生存，很少或者不照顧后代，龐大的數量彌補了被吃掉或自然因素死亡的可能性。另一個極端是K策略，繁殖率非常低，每次甚至只生一個，但是有很高的存活率，完善的養(yǎng)育和保護增加了存活率。K策略在脊椎動物中很常見，極端的例子包括大型哺乳動物和靈長類。r 和 K在下面的人口增長方程中。
dN / dt = rN (K – N) / K
N = 人口規(guī)模
K = 環(huán)境承載能力
r = 人口增長率
There does not appear to be a direct evolutionary driver associated with r-K theory, but Rushton has shown that it offers insight on how group traits evolved, when applied at the sub-species level. He applied Jensen’s default hypothesisx to humans (an extreme example of the K-strategy) and found that the factors that operate over the entire spectrum of r-K are found between races and that the between-species traits are predictive of racial trait differences. Since his extension of r-K theory was limited to humans (a K selected species), he called the application “Differential K Theory” (Rushton, 2004).
Rushton (2004) examined traits of 234 mammalian species and found (via principal component analysis) a single life history factor, with the following loadings:
r-K理論并沒有顯現出直接的進化動力，但是Rushton指出，當應用在亞種群上時，這個理論顯示了種群特性是如何形成的。他使用了Jensen對人類的假設（典型的極端K策略），在r-K圖譜中發(fā)現了那些人類種族之間起作用的因素，人種之間差別的預測也適用于物種之間。因此他擴展了被限制在人類上的r-K理論（一個K策略的物種），他把這種應用叫做“差別K理論”(Rushton, 2004)。
Rushton (2004)測試了234種哺乳動物，發(fā)現了（主成分分析）一個個單一的生命歷程因素，如下表：
brain weight 腦重量 .85
longevity 壽命 .91
gestation time 妊娠時間 .86
birth weight 新生兒重量 .62
litter size 產子數量 -.54
age at first mating 首次交配年齡 .73
duration of lactation 哺乳時間 .67
body weight 體重 .61
body length 體長 .63
These same factors appear at the sub-species (race) level in humans. In each case, the ordering of the item being measured is such that Caucasoids lie between Mongoloids and Negroids. If there was any chance involved, at least some of the factors should align differently. They do not. Examples of ordered variables (Caucasoid values always lying between the two other races) from Table 1, Rushton (1995):
同樣的因素也出現在人類的亞種群里。同樣測量了這些項目，高加索白人在蒙古人和黑人之間。如果有機會改進，至少這些因素中的一些應該調整。例如下面的例子，Rushton (1995):
· Brain size — all forms of measurement
· 腦尺寸—所有形式的測量
· Intelligence
· 智力
· Decision times — chronometric measurements
· 判斷力—精確測定
· Maturation rate — gestation, skeletal development, motor development, dental development, and age in reproduction measures
· 成熟率—妊娠期，骨骼發(fā)育，運動發(fā)育，牙齒發(fā)育，生育年齡
· Personality measures — examples: aggressiveness, cautiousness, dominance, impulsivity, self-concept, etc.
· 性格—例如：攻擊性，謹慎，支配性，沖動，自我認識等等。
· Social measures — marital stability, law abidingness, and mental health
· 社會—婚姻穩(wěn)定性，遵紀守法，心理健康
· Reproductive effort — twinning, hormone levels, sex characteristics, permissive attitudes
· 生育—雙胞胎，技術水平，性別特征，寬容度
Differential K Theory simply shows that the ordering of variables at the sub-species level can be predicted by the application of the degree to which each group is K-selected. It suggests that the evolution of racial groups was not random on a trait by trait basis, but instead followed the same general patterns seen between species.
差異K理論僅僅顯示了亞物種變量的排序，能夠預測每個K選擇種群。這表明物種的進化不是隨機的基于特性到特性的變化，相反的是遵循一個相同的模式。
Since Differential K Theory identifies different reproductive strategies on a within-group basis, the question might be raises as to which strategy is most effective. Arguing from one point of view, the population sizes of China and Japan (at various points in time) might imply that the more K-selective strategy has been dominant. But present population trends have favored less K-selective groups, especially as a result of very low fecundity in industrialized nations. Lynn and Harvey (2007) found a significant global dysgenic effect, such that the world correlation of IQ and fertility is – 0.73. This has resulted in an estimated loss of about .86 IQ points over the past half centuryxi and is expected to produce a larger decline of 1.28 points over the next fifty years. The estimates from Lynn and Harvey suggest that global IQ is declining because the more r-selected population groups are increasing in numbers, while the more K-selected groups are declining; in a Darwinian sense, r-selection wins. When Lynn delivered a paper on this subject in 2007 (International Society for Intelligence Research, annual conference), he pointed to the rapid declines in fertility throughout Europe, standing at well below replacement level. Fertility in the United States stands at the replacement level.
差異K理論區(qū)分種群內在不同的繁殖策略，問題就是哪個策略是最有效的。一種觀點是，以中國和日本的人口規(guī)模（在各個時間點上）可能意味著偏K選擇策略是占統治地位的。但是目前的人口趨勢可能對較少K選擇的族群有利，特別是低生育率的工業(yè)國家。Lynn 和 Harvey (2007)發(fā)現了一個對全人類不利的現象，全世界智商和生育力的相關性是-0.73。在過去的半個世紀，估計已經導致了智商損失0.86個點，在下一個50年預計會進一步下降1.28個點。Lynn 和 Harvey的研究指出全球智商下降是因為r選擇策略的人口族群大量繁殖，而K選擇策略的族群正在下降；按照達爾文原理，r選擇勝利了。Lynn在2007年就這一研究方向發(fā)表了論文（國際社會智商研究和年度會議），他指出全歐洲的生育率正在下降，持續(xù)維持在更替水平以下。美國的生育率則剛好在更替水平上。
Robust body
強壯的身體
Among the ordered, between-group, factors in the list above are longevity and brain size. These, and some other factors, have emerged from the study of human intelligence, all connecting the more robust body to higher intelligence. General health, body symmetry, height, grip strength, and vital capacity all correlate positively with IQ.xii Some of these correlates (height, for example) are believed to be entirely the result of selective mating.xiii Others are presumably intrinsic genetic factors that are in some way related to a robust body. A negative trait explanation might be offered, which would be that the presence of deleterious genes cause multiple disruptive consequences to the body. This latter explanation is more likely to fit at the low end of the intelligence distribution and would be less effective in explaining the correlation over the full distribution of intelligence.
壽命和腦容量以及其他的因素在人類智力的研究中已有所體現，所有的都把身體更強壯與更聰明聯系起來。大體健康，身體對稱，身高，握力和肺活量都確實和智商相關。這些關系中的一些是交配選擇的結果（例如身高）。其他因素則和身體強壯相關的遺傳因素有關。有人提出一種負面特性解釋，負面特性指有害基因的存在引起身體的多種破壞。這種新解釋更可能在適合智力分布中智力差的那一部分族群。在解釋全部智力分布方面沒有效果。
One of the particularly interesting demonstrations of the robust body concept is the finding that more intelligent individuals have more symmetric bodies. The measurement used is known as “fluctuating asymmetry” (FA). It is derived by measuring finger length, and dimensions at the ankle, wrists, etc. where there is little fatty tissue. Increasing FA means more body asymmetry.xiv Bates (2007) found FA correlations with IQ for two groups: -0.41 and -0.29; these are within the general range of other FA studies. Furlow et al. (1997) and Prokosch et al. (2005) both hypothesized that the variance in g is a consequence of the variance in a general fitness throughout the body and brain.
強壯的身體這一概念的一個有趣的現象是越聰明的個體，身體就越對稱。測量的方法叫做“波動不對稱性”，簡稱FA。通過測量手指長度，踝關節(jié)，手腕等等脂肪很少的地方。不對稱性值越大，意味著越不對稱。Bates (2007)發(fā)現不對稱性與智商有兩組相關系數：-0.41 和 -0.29；其他的FA研究也大概在這個范圍內。Furlow 等人 (1997) 和 Prokosch 等人 (2005)假設g的變化是身體和大腦總體健康狀況變化的結果。（譯注：g因素理論：general facts，分析被試者的各類測驗成績時，發(fā)現有一個因素與各類工作均有關，稱為普通智力因素（G）；但有些人數學測驗成績較好，而語文測驗成績較差；另一些人則相反。他認為這些差別或特長提示另一種因素的存在，即特殊智力因素（S）。）
The presumption is that FA serves as an indicator of the degree of developmental instability in the individual. Developmental instability would reasonably stand to also account for some of the other physical correlates to intelligence, such as measures of strength, general health, longevity, etc. As of 2008, the causal relationship between FA and g has not been established. Thoma et al. (2005) found that FA and brain volume both correlated with g, but that they did not correlate with each other and Johnson et al. (2008) did not find a correlation between FA and g. Consequently, it is not possible to establish probable causation at this time. The thing that can be concluded is that multiple fitness related variables show correlations with intelligence. Whether greater fitness (per these variables) has played a role as an evolutionary driver (in the Darwinian sense) must remain speculative.
我們推測可能不對稱性反映了個體的發(fā)育基礎不穩(wěn)定度。發(fā)育的不穩(wěn)定度合理的解釋了其他與智力相關的身體部分，例如力量，總體的健康，身高等。2008年起，不對稱性與g之間的因果關系還沒有被建立起來。Thoma 等人 (2005)發(fā)現不對稱性和腦容量合起來與g相關。但是彼此之間沒有相關性，Johnson 等人 (2008)沒有發(fā)現不對稱性與g相關。因此，現在不可能建立因果關系。能夠推斷出來的就是與多重健康指標相關的變量與智力有關。是否越健康就越能扮演進化驅動者的角色這一點依然僅僅是推測。
Conclusions
結論
Intelligence increased throughout millions of years of evolution, showing increasing presence as animals became more biologically complex. This process is most apparent in brain size and the brain size to body size ratio. As various hominid species appeared, the same process of increasing brain size continued. Today human brain size remains predictive of intelligence for all population groups.
在百萬年的進化歷程中，智力得到了增長，并且在持續(xù)增長，正如動物在生物學上變得越來越復雜。這一過程最顯著的就是大腦尺寸以及大腦占身體的比重。從各種原始人種群出現開始，腦容量增長這一進程始終在持續(xù)。今天人類大腦的尺寸依然可以預測所有人群的智力。
Although there were presumably numerous evolutionary filters that influenced the development of human intelligence along slightly different lines, winter weather stands out as the most salient single force, as is seen in the strong correlation between winter temperatures and the intelligence of various indigenous populations.
雖然可以推測有很多進化過濾器影響了人類智力的發(fā)展，使其走上了明顯不同的進化之路，冬季是最明顯的一支力量，可以看到，冬季的溫度與各個土著族群的智力之間有很強的相關性。
The factors that caused different developmental paths in separate races, follow the same r-K reproductive strategy that is found throughout the animal kingdom. The absence of exceptions to this process suggest an orderly relationship between races, as they adapted to various local environmental conditions. This underlying factor was mediated in large part by the severe demands of weather and other survival related environmental conditions.
引起各個種族走上不同的發(fā)展道路的因素都遵循同樣的r-K繁殖策略理論，這在整個動物王國中都可以發(fā)現。在這一過程中沒有例外，顯示出了種族之間的排序關系，正如他們適應了各種各樣不同的環(huán)境條件。這一最優(yōu)先的潛在因素在很大程度上通過嚴酷的氣候和其他生死攸關的環(huán)境條件表現出來。
論壇地址：http://www./bbs/thread-233670-1-1.html Modern man appeared somewhere around 200,000 – 150,000 YBP as an already highly developed product of evolution.i From that point, he experienced evolutionary forces that further refined, enhanced, and diversified his mental prowess. The following discussion is a review of some aspects of this remarkable product of evolution.
作為高度進化的產物，現代人出現在20萬年到15萬年前。從那一刻起，進化的驅動力使得人類的智力更加精細，強大和多樣化。下面我們來回顧一下這一非凡的進化產物。
The nature of work in fields such as archeology, paleontology, and anthropology is to collect evidence, organize it, analyze it, and to then offer explanations that fit the findings. When the evidence is thin or misunderstood, attempts to explain it will be nothing more than incorrect, educated guesses. But as more and more is understood about the input information and the science behind these items, the explanations become more convincing. In the case of the evolution of human intelligence, a good bit is known about the sequence of species appearance, from early life forms through hominids. Intelligence has been studied for about a century and has benefited greatly from recent technologies, such as those used for brain imaging and electroencephalography (used to record brain activity in the form of electrical potentials). The knowledge base and availability of experimental options is, however, sparse enough that most of the explanations that can be offered are at least open to alternative formulations. With that in mind, this text will explore the explanations offered by some of the most eminent researchers in the field.
這些學科的本質，例如考古學、古生物學和人類學，是收集證據，組織證據，分析證據，然后提出一個合理的解釋。當證據不足或被曲解時，試圖去解釋它只會得到錯誤和所謂有根據的猜測。但是隨著了解的信息越來越多以及科學的發(fā)展，這些解釋變得越來越有說服力。至于人類智力的進化，長期以來我們把它作為一系列物種的表象來了解，從早期的生命形態(tài)到原始人類。智力已經被研究了大約一個世紀，這項研究也得益于現代科技，例如腦成像和腦電圖（用電勢構成來記錄腦活動）。但是，這些知識的基礎和實驗可行性是不夠充分的，至少現有的大部分解釋都有存在另一種構想的可能性?；谶@一點，這篇文章將要探討在這一領域最杰出的研究者所提出的一些解釋。
Intelligence developing in various species
不同物種的智力發(fā)展
Any quick review of the evolution of animals immediately reveals a pattern of increasing complexity and intelligence. On a between species basis, lower life forms (invertebrates) display the least sophisticated intelligence with increasing mental development in vertebrates, especially in birds and mammals. In some regards, animal intelligence can be shown to be increasing over time, with gains when species of greater complexity have appeared.
隨便觀察一下動物的進化就會發(fā)現這樣一個模式，動物們變得越來越復雜和聰明。以不同的物種為基礎，越低等的生命構成（無脊椎動物）相對于脊椎動物顯示了更低的智力，特別是鳥類和哺乳動物。從某些方面來說，動物的智力顯示出隨時間的推移越來越高，并伴隨著更加復雜的物種的出現而進一步提高。
Scientists have attempted to apply some order to the development of brainpower by looking at between-species brain size. As a rule, the species with the larger brain has more intelligent behavior, but not always. Small monkeys, for example, are more intelligent than typical grazing animals, but the monkeys have smaller brains. In order to correct for the body size differences, some researchers have opted to use the encephalization quotient (EQ), which is the ratio of brain size to body size.
科學家試圖通過觀察不同物種的腦容量來定義智力的發(fā)展水平。一般來說，擁有更大大腦的物種的行為更加聰明，但也不全是。例如小猴子，比典型的食草動物更加聰明，但是猴子的大腦更小。為了修正體型差異，一些研究人員使用腦化商數（EQ）（譯注：簡稱腦商，不是情商的EQ），就是大腦尺寸和體型尺寸的比例。
When only primates are being considered, total brain size gives a good indication of cognitive ability. Deaner, et al. (2007) found that neither EQ nor neocortex measures were superior predictors of intelligence. This finding is not so surprising, since a wide range of animal species were not considered. As an example of the comparisons that have been considered, the following is from Jerrison (1973):
當只考慮靈長類的時候，總腦量很好的顯示了認知能力。Deaner等人在2007年發(fā)現無論是EQ還是大腦皮質測量都不能很好地預測智力。這一發(fā)現并不奇怪，因為還有大量的物種沒有被考慮進來。已經有這樣一個比較的例子，下面的數據來自于Jerrison（1973）：
EQ
--
Chimp (male): 2.48 (56.7 kg body weight, 440 g brain weight)
Chimp (female): 2.17 (44.0 kg body weight, 325 g brain weight)
Gorilla (male): 1.53 (172.4 kg body weight, 570 g brain weight)
Gorilla (female): 1.76 (90.7 kg body weight, 426 g brain weight)
Human (male): 7.79 (55.5 kg body weight, 1361 g brain weight)
Human (female): 7.39 (51.5 kg body weight, 1228 g brain weight)
腦商
--
黑猩猩 (雄): 2.48 (56.7 公斤 , 440 克腦重)
黑猩猩(雌): 2.17 (44.0公斤, 325克腦重)
大猩猩 (雄): 1.53 (172.4公斤, 570克腦重)
大猩猩(雌): 1.76 (90.7公斤, 426克腦重)
人類 (男): 7.79 (55.5公斤, 1361克腦重)
(女): 7.39 (51.5公斤, 1228克腦重)
Hamilton (1935) selected rats for maze experiments, breeding bright and dull strains for 12 generations. The 12th generation maze bright and dull rats had brain weights that differed by 2.5 standard deviations. This experiment is a sort of accelerated test of evolutionary change, showing the dramatic association between brain size and cognitive ability.
Hamilton (1935)選擇老鼠做迷宮實驗，聰明的和笨的各繁育12代。在第12代笨的與聰明的老鼠腦重之間的差距是2.5個標準差。這一試驗屬于一系列的加速進化實驗，顯示了腦容量和認知能力之間明顯的聯系。
EQ has become the measurement of choice for comparisons between species, but the correction for body mass does not work well at the extremes. Very large animals, such as the manatee and rhinoceros, have EQs that are obviously misleading. The opposite happens among small species. Whales and elephants have brains that are multiples of the size of the human brain, hence the desire to correct for body size. But based on body size, the mouse has a much larger portion of its total weight accounted for by the brain.
腦商已經變成物種比較時可選的測量方法，但是在極端條件下體重修正的效果并不好。例如非常大的動物，像海?；蛳?，它們的腦商就會產生誤導。相反的也發(fā)生在非常小的物種之間。鯨魚和大象的大腦是人類的幾倍，因此需要體型修正。但是基于體型修正，老鼠的大腦所占的比重就大得多了。
Lynn (2006) compiled EQs for living and extinct species, normalized against average living mammals. The following is taken from his larger list:
Lynn (2006)編譯了現存的和已滅絕的物種的腦商表，標準化了現存物種的平均值。下面是從他的大表中摘出的：
EQ
--
Fish and reptiles .05
Average mammals 1.00
First birds 0.10 150 MYA
Average birds .75
First monkeys 1.00 30 MYA
Squirrel 2.80
Rhesus 2.10
Baboon 2.40
Gorilla 2.00
Orangutan 2.40
Chimpanzee 2.60
Homo habilis 4.30 4.3 MYA
Homo erectus 5.00 0.7 MYA
Homo sapiens 7.50
腦商
--
魚和爬行類 .05
哺乳類平均 1.00
早期鳥類 0.10 150 百萬年前
鳥類平均 .75
早期猴子 1.00 30百萬年前
松鼠 2.80
恒河猴 2.10
狒狒 2.40
大猩猩 2.00
紅毛猩猩 2.40
黑猩猩 2.60
能人 4.30 4.3百萬年前
直立人 5.00 0.7百萬年前
智人 7.50
[Anyone who has tried to keep squirrels out of a bird feeder can appreciate their high EQ. Whether it accurately places them relative to other species or not, the little critters are ingenious.]
任何試圖將松鼠擋在喂鳥器外面的人都會領略它們的高腦商。不管它們相對于其它物種的排位如何，這些小東西都是相當機靈的。
The extinct species from the list (birds, monkeys, and hominids) had smaller EQs than their later counterparts. This is consistent with the general trend seen in many branches of the evolutionary tree.
Lee (2007) has compiled a list of species and estimated their rank order standing with respect to man. The list below includes only familiar species and their most recent common ancestor with man, as estimated by Goodman et al. (1999).
表中已經滅絕的物種（鳥、猴子和原始人）比他們的繼任者的腦商更小。這與我們看到的進化樹的許多分支的總體趨勢是一致的。
Lee (2007)編了一個物種表，估算了各個物種相對與人類的排位。下表中僅僅包含了人們熟悉的動物，他們與人類有最近的共同祖先，正如Goodman等人估算的那樣(1999)。
物種 g* MRCA**
Human人 1
Orangutan紅毛星星 2 14
Chimpanzee黑猩猩 3 6
Spider Monkey蜘蛛猴 4 40
Gorilla大猩猩 5 7
Gibbon長臂猿 12 18
Baboon狒狒 14 25
Ruffed Lemur白頸狐猴 17 63
Bush Baby夜猴 21 63
Squirrel Monkey松鼠猴 22 40
* g is used here to signify general mental ability rank, relative to man
g是相對與人類的總排名
** most recent common ancestor with man (millions of years ago)
與人類最近的共同祖先（百萬年前）
The above list shows the expected link between human intelligence and that of other primates and demonstrates the relatively wide range of dates for the most recent ancestors. The brain did not develop only by increasing size; it reconfigured, such that significant increases in relative size can be seen in the frontal and parietal lobes. The frontal lobes are associated with speech and gesture; the parietal cortex increased in size at the time more sophisticated tool use began (Geary, 2004).
上表顯示了人類智力與其他靈長類之間的聯系，顯示了與最近祖先之間的時間跨度相當廣。大腦并沒有僅僅是在變大；可以在額葉和頂葉看到顯著的增加。額葉和語言與手勢有關；頂葉皮層的增加是因為復雜工具的使用開始了(Geary, 2004)。
Hominid EQ started to increase about 1 million YBP and reached a state of linear increase, starting about 500,000 YBP, peaking about 35,000 to 20,000 YBP (Geary, 2004). The decline in EQ after that point (3 to 4%) may be due to a change in selection pressures, or to brain development that was not volume dependent.
原始人的腦商在100萬年以前開始增加，50萬年以前達到線性增加的狀態(tài)，3.5萬到2萬年以前達到頂峰(Geary, 2004)。在此之后腦商減小了3 到 4%，可能是由于選擇壓力改變，或者不再大量依賴大腦的發(fā)育。
Modern man
現代人
The date of the origin of modern man (Homo sapiens sapiens) has been frequently revised to accommodate new discoveries, dating, and understanding. It was once believed that modern man first appeared about 30,000 YBP,ii but each new number has pushed that date further back. It is common to see 200,000 YBP cited in various sources today; some put the date at 250,000 or more YBP.
現代人（晚期智人）的起源時間被經常修正去適應新的發(fā)現，年代測定和理解。一度認為現代人首次出現在3萬年前，但是新的數字不斷的刷新，時期不斷的往前推。今天依據各種來源普遍認為是20萬年前；有些把這一時期推到25萬年前，或更久。
Homo sapiens began to migrate northward, out of Africa, around 100,000 YBP. Migration branched in many directions, carrying humans to most regions of the globe. The details of the migration are relatively unimportant to the discussion of intelligence, except for the branch that took some Homo sapiens west to what is now Europe, and others east to what is now Asia. Over the course of the following years, humans who settled in various locations faced a variety of selection pressures, resulting in adaptive changes that affected the body as well as the brain.
智人向北遷徙，離開非洲，大約10萬年前。向很多不同的方向遷徙，把人類散布到全球的大部分地區(qū)。遷徙的細節(jié)對于智力的討論不是很重要，除了方向，他們向西來到今天歐洲所在地，其他的向東來到今天的亞洲。過去了很多年，定居在不同地區(qū)的人類面臨著不同的選擇壓力，這導致了適應性的改變，（這些改變）即作用于身體也作用于大腦。
The human brain evolved in both size and complexity. It is three times the size of the chimpanzee brain, but has only a 25% advantage in the number of neurons. Human brains have, however, much higher numbers of synapses and interconnecting branches (Jensen, 1998).
人類的大腦包括兩個方面的進化，尺寸和復雜度。人類的大腦有黑猩猩大腦的三倍大，但是在神經元數量上只領先25%。但是人類大腦有更多的元軸突和互相的連接(Jensen, 1998)。
Modern man may have experienced unusually beneficial mutations that boosted intellectual output on two occasions. The first was around the time of the cultural explosion around 35,000 to 40,000 YBP. The second may have been an ASPM variant, which is about 6,000 years old and is limited to European populations. ASPM is a gene that is a major determinant of brain size. It may or may not have boosted intelligence, but it appeared at a time of increased complexity in at least some population groupsiii (Cochran G. and Harpending, J., 2005b). In a recent study, Bates et al. (2008) examined four brain size related genes (ASPM, MCPH1, CDK5RAP2, and BRCA1) and found no connection with intelligence or language, perhaps implying that brain complexity (degree of arborization) is the dominant factor.
現代人可能經歷了不同尋常的有益的突變，有兩次促進了智力的發(fā)展。第一次是文化爆炸式發(fā)展時期，大約3.5萬年到4萬年前。第二次是ASPM突變，大約6000年前，但僅限于歐洲人口。ASPM是決定大腦尺寸的主要基因。ASPM是否會促進智力還不一定，但是至少給某些人一個增加大腦復雜性的機會（Cochran G. 和 Harpending, J., 2005）。Bates等人（2008）研究了四個與大腦尺寸有關的基因（ASPM, MCPH1, CDK5RAP2, 和 BRCA1），發(fā)現和智力、語言無關，這可能暗示大腦復雜性（樹突程度）才是決定性因素。
Language
語言
It is difficult to define the role played by language in the development of human species, or to determine the role language may have played in the evolution of human intelligence. It is obvious that many animal species communicate with each other and that such communication is frequently an aid to survival. Animal communication can serve as a way to warn others of danger, to identify a food source, to assemble a scattered family, and to coordinate migration. But in humans, language became complex, as the brain evolved, allowing the transfer of specific information for group control, planning, and the transfer of learning. The role played by language as an evolutionary factor is probably indirect, for example as a means of enhancing survival by group efforts, as a superior teaching tool, and as a general aid towards the accumulation of survival related knowledge.
在人類的發(fā)展過程中，語言所起的作用是難以定義的，也很難確定語言在人類智力進化中所扮演的角色。很明顯，許多物種都可以彼此交流，而這種交流對生存至關重要。動物的交流可以作為一種警告其他同伴有危險、標明食物地點、組成松散的家庭和協同遷徙的方式。但是對于人類，語言變得非常復雜，因為發(fā)達的大腦，使得可以傳輸特別的信息，例如團隊控制，計劃和知識傳遞。語言作為進化因素可能扮演了間接的角色，例如作為通過團隊合作增加生存幾率的手段，作為優(yōu)秀的教育工具，作為有助于與生存有關的知識的累積。
The anthropological record shows that as man passed through time, he acquired language, developed it into various increasingly complex forms, and invented means of writing his thoughts. In parallel with this, he devised the related vehicles of art and music and developed those into increasingly complex forms. In the least advanced population groups, much of this simply did not happen.
人類學的研究表明，在人類的漫長發(fā)展過程中，獲得了語言能力，并把它的形式發(fā)展得越來越復雜，并發(fā)明了把他們的思想書寫下來的手段。與此同時，人類發(fā)明了藝術和音樂，并把這些在形式上發(fā)展的越來越復雜。只有少數的先進人群發(fā)展出這些，在多數人群這些不會發(fā)生。
There are relatively few records of individuals who were denied language during maturation, but at least one well documented. It is known as the case of Isabel. From birth to age six, she lived, locked in an attic with her deaf-mute mother. She received food and shelter, but no language and no mental stimulation (not a single toy). When she was found and tested, her mental age was 1 year and 7 months (IQ of about 30). Over the interval from age 6 to 8, she caught up with her age peers and reached a mental age of 8. Thereafter, she matured at the same rate as her age peers and maintained a normal intelligence throughout her life (Jensen, 1998). This unusual case demonstrated both the role of language in normal development and the underlying physiological basis of intelligence. Isabel developed the neural structures during the first six years, that enabled her to rapidly learn language and to use it to catch up to her age peers. Clearly, language is essential to the development of and use of the brain, but it is not the thing that forms the brain, such that it can function normally.
很少有在發(fā)育過程中不接受語言學習的案例。但是至少有一個是記錄在案的，就是著名的伊莎貝爾案例。從出生到6歲，她與她的聾啞母親生活在封閉的閣樓里。她獲得食物和被褥，但是沒有語言和智力刺激（沒有任何玩具）。當她被發(fā)現并接受測試時，她的心理年齡只相當于1年零7個月（IQ大約30）。從6歲到8歲，她趕上了她的同齡人，她的心理年齡達到8歲。從次以后，她和她的同齡人同步長大成人，她一生都達到了普通人的智力水平(Jensen, 1998)。這個不尋常的案例揭示了語言在正常發(fā)育中的作用和智力潛在的生理基礎。伊莎貝爾在出生后的6年間完成了神經元構建，使她具備了快速學習語言的能力，并使用這一能力趕上了她的同齡人。很明顯，語言對于大腦發(fā)展和使用是必不可少的，但是它并不構建大腦，只是使它可以正常的行使功能。
Selection pressures
選擇壓力
Increasing intelligence has accompanied the development of higher order species and is especially obvious in primates. The factors that selected for intelligence presumably acted when higher intelligence was advantageous in sustaining successful reproduction cycles. Humans have been unusual among animal species in acting to alter their living conditions in order to survive, as opposed to conforming to the limitations established by various geographic ranges. When human species were unable to overcome natural forces, they perished, but some managed to survive by using their intelligence to store food and create tools, shelter, and protective garments to increase their survival odds. Consequently, variations in weather patterns, food supplies, and threats from animals and other humans most likely acted to kill fewer individuals with high intelligence than those with low intelligence.
高等生物的進化伴隨著智力的增長，靈長類則尤其明顯。當更高的智力在維持生育循環(huán)方面更有利時，智力的選擇因素開始起作用。在動物中人類是不同尋常的，他們?yōu)榱松娑淖儹h(huán)境，與適應既成事實的各種各樣的地理范圍限制完全相反。當人類不能駕馭自然之力時，他們就會滅亡，但是一些則通過使用他們的智慧存儲食物，制造工具、房屋和衣服增加他們的生存幾率。因此，在各種各樣的氣候環(huán)境中，獲取食物，應對動物威脅和在人類沖突聰明的個體被殺的也比低智力的少。
Cold as an evolutionary driver
寒冷是進化的動力
Winter temperatures have been the focus of much research with respect to the differentiation of intelligence among various human population groups. As people migrated into colder regions, they faced numerous cognitive challenges with respect to planning for winter food needs, developing warm clothing and shelter, hunting under adverse conditions, etc. The presumption is that when migrating groups failed to deal with winter adversity they did not live to continue the struggle. This severe culling of people favored those with higher intelligence.
在研究不同人類族群的智力差異時，冬季的溫度是集中研究的對象。當人類向寒冷的地區(qū)遷徙時，他們面臨著更多的認知挑戰(zhàn)，比如規(guī)劃冬季的實物需求，發(fā)展保暖的衣物和住所，在惡劣的條件下狩獵等等。假定不能夠應對惡劣冬季的移民將不能生存以繼續(xù)他們的挑戰(zhàn)。嚴厲的淘汰有利于高智力群體。
Beals, et al. (1984) examined 122 population groups on every continent and found a correlation of +.62 between cranial capacity and distance from the equator. One argument concerning the reason for the cranial capacity increase in colder climates is that the larger brainiv was necessary to enhance survival under the extreme pressure of cold winters (Jensen, 1998). If this is the actual driver, it may be only an accommodation to higher intelligence, rather than a cause of it. There is a notable exception to the relationship between brain size and intelligence. Arctic peoples have the largest mean brain size of any population group, but have a mean IQ of 91. Lynn (1987, 2006), Rushton (2005) and others credit the cold climate for the large brain volume; Lynn reasoned that the small population size of the Arctic Peoples greatly reduced their chances for other mutations necessary for higher intelligence. This exception and a small difference between mean brain volumes between Australian Aborigines (IQ 62) and Bushmen (IQ 54), relative to sub-Saharan Africans, demonstrated that all of the variance between population groups is not accounted for by brain volume; other biological differences are present and account for significant additional variance. Lynn (2006) presented the following to illustrate the relationships between winter temperatures, brain size, and intelligence:
Beals等人(1984)調查了每個大陸上共122個人群，并找出了顱骨容量與赤道距離的關聯，一個關于氣候越冷腦容量越大的原因的解釋是在嚴酷冬天的生存壓力下，更大的大腦對于生存下去是至關重要的(Jensen, 1998)。如果這是真正的驅動力，那也僅僅是高智商的適應性調節(jié)，而不是根本原因。有一個腦容量與智力相關性的例外例子。北極圈內的居民有著最大的腦容量，但是平均智商只有91。Lynn (1987, 2006), Rushton (2005)和其他人也都相信寒冷的氣候意味著更大的腦容量。Lynn推測北極區(qū)的居民因為種群數量太小，這樣極大的減小了產生高智力所必須的突變的機會。這個例外以及澳大利亞土著(IQ 62)與布希曼人(IQ 54)的比較，考慮到非洲撒哈拉沙漠以南人口腦容量與平均腦容量之間的微小差異，顯示了不同人群間的所有差異并不能都歸因于腦容量；其他的生物學差異是存在的，并解釋了其他的重大差異。 Lynn (2006)提出了如下內容，展示了冬季溫度、腦容量與智力的關系：
degrees C degrees C cc
Winter Temp Wurm Temp Brain size IQ
冬季氣溫 武木期氣溫 腦容量 智商
Arctic peoples北極區(qū)人 -15 -20 1,443 91
East Asians 東亞 -7 -12 1,416 105
Europeans 歐洲 0 -5 1,369 99
Native Americans 美洲原住民 7 5 1,366 86
S. Asian and N. Africans 南亞 北非 12 7 1,293 84
Wurm Temp = coldest winter monthly temperatures during the main Wurm glaciation, from approximately 28,000 to 10,000 YBP.
武木期溫度=主要的武木冰川期間的冬季月最低溫度，大約2.8萬到1萬年前。
In warm climates, the relationship between IQ and temperatures becomes irregular. For example, the population groups in sub-Saharan Africa show mean IQ differences, but these are not consistent with the mean temperatures in the associated geographical areas. This is consistent with the expectation that temperature does not act as an evolutionary driver in relatively warm areas, where early man survived by foraging. It is cold that is lethal and which places a premium on cognitive ability.
在溫暖的氣候里，智商與溫度的關系不再那么清晰。例如，撒哈拉以南的人口的平均智商是不同的，但與相關地理區(qū)域的平均溫度無關。在相對溫暖的地區(qū)，溫度就不再是進化動力了，那的先民們通過覓食就能生存。寒冷天氣是致命的，額外促進了認知能力。
A very strong marker for winter temperatures is skin color. Templer and Arikawa (2006) found that skin color (darkness) correlated at r = -0.85 between winter high temperatures and r = -0.75 with winter low temperatures (both at p < 0.001). The authors do not suggest that skin color is directly related to intelligence, although Jensen pointed out that the data may be a reflection of pleiotropy acting as at least a partial cause. In an earlier study, Jensen (1973) found a correlation of -0.20 between skin color and IQ on a within-group basis. Despite not attempting to imply causation, Templer and Arikawa did present the corresponding correlations between IQ and various other parameters. It is important to note that the correlations are on a nation by nation basis (129 countries), not on an individual basis:
冬季溫度的顯著標記是膚色。Templer 和 Arikawa (2006)發(fā)現膚色（深色）與冬季高氣溫的相關性為r = -0.85，與冬季低氣溫的相關性為r = -0.75（兩個的P都小于0.001）。專家不建議膚色與智商直接相關，雖然Jensen指出數據可能是基因多效性的反射，至少在局部起作用。在早期的研究中，Jensen (1973)發(fā)現在一個基礎群體內智商與膚色的相關度為-0.20。盡管不去試著暗示因果關系，Templer 和 Arikawa確實指出了智商和其他多種因素之間的相關性。需要注意這個相關性是基于國家的（129個國家），不是基于個體，這很重要。
correlation with IQ
智商相關性
Skin color 膚色 -0.90
Real GDP per capita 人均國內生產總值 0.74
Celsius temperature
攝氏度
winter high 冬季高 -0.74
winter low 冬季低 -0.63
summer high 夏季高 -0.30
summer low 夏季低 -0.31
Intelligence of Mongoloidsv
蒙古人種的智商
Various sources (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994; Lynn 1987, 2006; Jensen 1998; etc.) have reported estimates of mean Mongoloid intelligence at 3vi to 5 pointsvii above that of Caucasoids (European and of European descent). The early achievements of Mongoloids, especially in China, are well documented; one good example is Murray’s (2003) review of Chinese early accomplishments in mathematics, astronomy, invention, maritime expeditions, medicine, architecture, art, literature, and philosophy. The early start of Chinese culture was followed by various starts and stops that are similar to those seen in European history. The early appearance of advanced civilization in China is exactly what would be expected on the basis of the relatively high intelligence of the people.
各種資料來源(Herrnstein & Murray, 1994; Lynn 1987, 2006; Jensen 1998; 等等。)都顯示了蒙古人種的平均智商比高加索白人高3到5個點。蒙古人種的早期記錄，尤其是在中國，被完好的保存著；一個好的例子是Murray’s (2003)對中國早期在數學、天文、發(fā)明、航海探索、醫(yī)藥、建筑、藝術、文學和哲學成就的討論。中華文明有多個起源，與歐洲的歷史相似。中國先進文明的早期表象確實被認為是建立在相對高智商人群的基礎上。
The Mongoloid intelligence advantage is due to high spatial ability, which offsets a low verbal ability. During the Wurm glaciation, Mongoloids were trapped between ice advancing from the Himalayas in the south and from the Arctic in the north. The severe cold acted as a strong survival filter, leaving subsequent generations physically and mentally changed in ways that reduced body heat loss and enhanced hunting skills and shelter building and other tasks that were necessary to survival.
蒙古人種優(yōu)越的智力在于高的空間能力（譯注：空間想象能力是指通過想象去思考事物的具體形狀、位置。想的與事實是否一致，就是空間想象能力的體現。），以彌補低的語言能力。在武木冰河期，蒙古人被困在其南面推進中的喜馬拉雅冰河和其北面的北極冰河之間。嚴寒成為強大的生存過濾器，存活下來的后代在體能和智力都向這個方向演變，更少的體溫損失，增強狩獵技能，建造房屋和其他生存必須的任務方面。
Lynn (1987) shows a depression of about 4 points in verbal and an advantage of about 6 points in spatial abilities (relative to Caucasoids). He then proceeds to discuss possible evolutionary pressures which could account for this profile. He reasons that during the last ice age (Wurm), Mongoloids must have lived largely as hunters (in the manner of Eskimos). The hunting for survival put a premium on spatial abilities, acting as an evolutionary pressure, favoring that ability. Lynn speculated that the increase in spatial abilities may have taken place at the expense of verbal abilities, literally displacing portions of the verbal centers in the brain. He also pointed out that there is a sex difference in spatial ability, favoring males, presumably due to the usual role of the male as hunter.
Lynn (1987)的研究顯示蒙古人種的語言能力差4點和空間能力高6點（相對于高加索人種）。他繼續(xù)討論可能的進化壓力，這些都可以解釋這一特性。他推測在最后的冰河期（武木期），蒙古人種大量的依賴狩獵生存（就像愛斯基摩人的行為）。為了生存而進行的狩獵活動增強了空間能力，起到增進這一能力的進化壓力的作用。Lynn推測空間想象能力的增加可能是以語言能力為代價的，從字面上看是取代了大腦的語言中心論。他也指出，空間能力也有性別差異，男性更加優(yōu)秀，可能是由于男性作為獵人的緣故。
Lynn (1987)
Comment: The explanation offered by Lynn for the Mongoloid intelligence profile is obviously an idea that is difficult to prove. Since he published that idea in 1987, I asked him (in 2004) if there had been any work that confirmed or disproved the hypothesis. He said that there was nothing new, but was content that the idea was still reasonable. Interestingly, he did not mention the possibility of investigating the spatial and verbal abilities of Mongoloids via brain imaging.
Lynn (1987)
評論：Lynn對于蒙古智力特點的解釋顯然是很難證明的。自從他在1987年發(fā)表以來，我在2004年問他，是否有任何成果確認或反證這一假設。他說沒有任何新進展，但令人滿意的是這理論依然是合理的。有趣的是，他沒有提及通過腦影像來研究蒙古人種空間和語言能力的可能性。
Intelligence of Ashkenazi Jews
德系猶太人的智力
Ashkenazi Jews from Western Europe and the United Statesviii have the highest mean IQ of any population group. Various sources cite slightly different numbers, but Lynn’s (2006) estimate of a 10 point advantage relative to the British mean is probably accurate, to within a point or two. This advantage is concentrated in verbal and math, while the group is lower in visual-spatial ability (essentially the reverse of the Mongoloid profile). The very high rate of accomplishment among Ashkenazi Jews has been documented repeatedly. One example:
在西歐和美國的德系猶太人有所有族群里最高的智商。各種資料引用了略有不同的數據，但Lynn’s (2006)估計對于英國的平均值有10點的優(yōu)勢可能是精確的，誤差在1、2點以內。這個優(yōu)勢集中在語言和數學，而在視覺空間能力上則比較低（本質上來講與蒙古人種正好相反）。德系猶太人的高成就被反復大書特書。舉個例子：
“During the last three decades, Jews have made up 50% of the top two hundred intellectuals, 40 percent of American Nobel Prize Winners in science and economics, 20 percent of professors at the leading universities, 21 percent of high level civil servants, 40 percent of partners in the leading law firms in New York and Washington, 26% of the reporters, editors, and executives of the major print and broadcast media, 59 percent of the directors, writers, and producers of the fifty top-grossing motion pictures from 1965 to 1982, and 58 percent of directors, writers, and producers in two or more primetime television series.” [Lipset and Raab (2005) pp 26-27]
“最近的30年間，猶太人占前200名頂級知識分子的50%，美國科學與經濟諾貝爾獎得主的40%，高等學府教授的20%，高級公務員的21%，紐約和華盛頓高端律師事務所合伙人的40%，記者、編輯、廣播媒體和主要出版物高管的26%， 1965年到1982年最賣座的55部電影的制片人、導演、作者的59%，一個或更多黃金時段電視劇的導演、作者、制片人的58%”。 [Lipset 和 Raab (2005)](譯注：猶太人對話語權可怕的統治力)
The question naturally arises as to what accounts for this high mean. Weather is presumably not a factor, since there was no northward geographical separation relative to lower IQ groups with whom they lived. Several hypotheses have been argued: (1) the intentional practice of eugenics, (2) persecution, (3) genetic drift, and (4) a history of city life, as opposed to farming.
很自然會提出這樣的問題，什么導致其占如此高的比例？想來氣候應該不是原因，因為和他們生活在一起的低智商群體并沒有趨北地理隔離現象。有幾個可能和假設被提出：（1）刻意的優(yōu)生傳統，（2）遭受的迫害（3）基因漂變（4）長期都市生活，而不是務農。
Item 1 – Various sources have cited the relative isolation of the Ashkenazi population group. The group has had a history of less reproductive mixing with other groups than is typical of other population groups, especially those found in Europe. MacDonald (1994), for example, sees a closed breeding group, separated from others on religious grounds, and extrapolates that this history was largely responsible for the emergence of a high group intelligence. He uses the same argument, but applied as less isolation to explain the failure of Sephardic Jews to evolve along the Ashkenazi line.
項1—很多的信息源都提到德系猶太人群的相對隔離。在漫長的歷史中，這個種群很少像其他種群那樣與別的種群交叉繁殖，尤其是在歐洲。例如，麥克唐納德（1994），仔細研究了由于宗教原因而與其他族群隔離的近血源群體，推斷這一經歷很可能是高智商群體產生的原因。他使用同樣的理論來解釋不隔離的西班牙系猶太人的失敗。
The problem with this hypotheses is that too little genetic mixing, over a long time period, is likely to reduce the probability of the population group gaining advantageous genes. Lynn (2006) argued that there has always been at least some inter-marriage outside of the group and that even a relatively small amount of exogamy is sufficient to introduce desirable non-Jewish genes into the breeding group. If this is correct, it may imply that there is an optimal range of mixing and that the Ashkenazi history falls in that range.
這一理論的問題是太少的基因混合，在長期來看，很可能會減少獲得優(yōu)秀基因的概率。Lynn (2006)指出，其實一直是有一些異族通婚的，即使相對數量很少，也足以使得非猶太基因進入這個群體。如果這一理論正確，那就意味著有一個最優(yōu)的混血比例，而猶太人正好落在這一范圍內。
Part of the eugenics hypotheses is that Jews encouraged the brightest to have more children and discouraged duller individuals from retaining the Ashkenazi identity. While the argument may be correct and may be a contributing factor, it is very difficult to build a strong case that this is the primary driver of high intelligence among Ashkenazi Jews.
優(yōu)生學假設之一是猶太人鼓勵最聰明的人有更多的孩子，笨蛋不能保持猶太人的身份。理論可能是正確的，并起了部分作用，但是沒有強有力的案例能說明這是德系猶太人高智商的主要驅動力。
Item 2 – It is common knowledge that Jews have been persecuted in various parts of the world for a very long time, up to and including the present. The argument that persecution was an evolutionary driver is quite similar to the winter temperature argument that is generally applied to Europeans and East Asians. If smarter individuals had a higher probability of successful reproduction than others, the end effect is the same for both weather and persecution. In that regard, this hypothesis is particularly strong.
項2—眾所周知，猶太人在世界很多地方被長期迫害，一直到近現代。迫害在進化動力方面起的作用與冬季的溫度類似，這一點普遍適用于歐洲人和東亞人。如果聰明的個體有更高的幾率成功繁衍后代，作用的結果就與天氣和迫害類似。就這一點而言，這一假設是特別有力的。
Item 3 – Genetic drift is a driver of genetic composition when a small group is isolated and has a randomly selected set of genes. This may happen when a large fraction of the initial group is killed, or when a small subset of the initial group is geographically separated from the others. When an isolated group grows in numbers, the genes that were not present, as a matter of chance, will be lost, while those that were present will characterize the group as long as it remains isolated. No mutations are required, but a genetic bottleneck of sorts has to have occurred.
項—3當某個小群體被隔離時，基因漂變成為基因組合的驅動力，隨機的選擇基因片段。當大部分原始族群被殺時或一小部分因為地理因素被從原始族群中隔離出來時這種變化也可能發(fā)生。當隔離的群體數量增加時，有很大的機會那些沒有被帶出來的基因會丟失，那些帶出來的基因則會塑造這個族群，只要保持隔離狀態(tài)。沒有必須的突變，但是各種族群遺傳瓶頸效應將會出現。
This path also tends to increase inbreeding by amounts that are related to the size of the isolated group. Inbreeding has the potential of causing higher frequencies of recessive genetic diseases and is well documented as having a deleterious impact on intelligence (Jensen, 1998; Rushton and Jensen, 2005). If the genetic drift were accompanied by significant inbreeding, there would be opposing forces that might prevent the large magnitude IQ gains that have happened.
這一途徑也會導致大量同系繁殖，同系繁殖的規(guī)模和被隔離的族群人數有關。同系繁殖有引起更頻繁的隱性遺傳疾病的風險，對于智力的影響也是有害的(Jensen, 1998; Rushton 和 Jensen, 2005)。如果遺傳漂變伴隨明顯的同系繁殖，將會對大量高智商的產生起反作用。
Item 4 – This “city life” hypotheses argues that Ashkenazi Jews found themselves living in cities and performing jobs that were more mentally taxing than was typical of other groups which included large groups involved in farming and herding. It contends that this sustained history led Ashkenazi Jews to evolve in the direction of the intelligence requirements of their city jobs (mostly money lending – see Arkin, 1975). During the near famine conditions of the 10th and 11th centuries, Jews did not suffer and lived at the level of lower nobility (Roth, 2002).
項4—“城市生活”這一假設指出，德系猶太人發(fā)現他們自己生活在城里，做著比包括農民和牧民在內的其他群體更多的腦力勞動。德系猶太人朝著符合城市生活的智力要求進化（大部分從事借貸也，見Arkin，1975）。在10和11世紀的饑荒期間，猶太人并沒有受苦，過著低等貴族水平的生活(Roth, 2002)。
This hypothesis is argued by Cochran, et al. (2005a) along with an attempt to link various genetic diseases that are found among Ashkenazi Jews to the genes that cause high intelligence. The “city life” idea has to meet the same requirements as any other evolutionary explanation—that it contributed to a higher probability of achieving successful reproduction. It could well do that, or at least contribute to it. This line of reasoning is opposite to the weather and persecution hypotheses in that it is a positive contributor, while the other two are literally killers.
這一假設是由Cochran等人提出的(2005)，試圖將德系猶太人群中的遺傳病和高智商的基因聯系起來?！俺鞘猩睢边@一點與其他對進化的解釋面臨同樣的前提條件----必須有助于獲得更高的遺傳幾率。就一點來講它是起作用了，至少是有影響的。這一推理與氣候和迫害假設相反，因為它是正面作用，而其他兩項則從字面也可以看出來是通過減少人口來起作用。
One weakness of the “city life” explanation is that is assumes that there is a direction of causation from task to intelligence. If high intelligence was already present in a given group, that group might be expected to gravitate towards work that was complementary of the ability. That case applies in contemporary free markets, in which bright people are attracted to the challenges and rewards of high IQ jobs. But the situation that brought Ashkenazi Jews into money lending was directly related to their group status as non-Christians. They benefited from the Christian prohibition against usury. In short, there was a demand for lending, but no supply. This presents a somewhat different motivation for entry into a business area; it was not a matching of intellectual ability to a challenging occupation, but one of adapting to a social niche that was created by dictate. So, the job as a filter may have some credibility. Weinryb (1972) makes a case that wealthy Jews had a very high level of reproductive success, with large families, as well as a high standard of living (possibly contributing to a higher survival rate for their children).
城市生活之一解釋的一個問題是假設工作與智力有因果關系，如果高智商在指定的群體中已經出現，那么這個群體可能去做與這一能力相稱的工作。這一理論適用于當代的自由市場，聰明人做有挑戰(zhàn)性和高報酬的高智商工作。但是使德系猶太人從事借債工作的直接原因是他們的非基督徒身份。他們從基督徒禁止的高利貸行業(yè)獲利?？傊?，是有借債的要求，但是沒有人提供這項服務。這說明進入商業(yè)領域的動機有點不同。這與聰明人從事有挑戰(zhàn)的行業(yè)這一理論不一致，他們只是為了適應強制的社會生態(tài)。工作作為過濾器還是可信的。Weinryb (1972)做了一項研究，富有的猶太人有很高的生育率，和大家庭，生活水平也高（這一點使他們的孩子成活率較高）。
Intelligence of Caucasoids
高加索白人的智力
The major sub-groups among Caucasoids are Europeans, South Asians, and North Africans. These groups were described by anthropologists and were later confirmed by analysis of their genetic markers (Cavalli-Sforza, et al., 1994). These three major groups evolved higher intelligence as a function of their latitude: Europeans, IQ 100; South Asians, IQ 90; and North Africans, IQ 85. [Lynn (2006) gives the most detailed account, to date, of the global distribution of intelligence.]
高加索白人的主要亞種群是歐洲人，南亞人和北非人。人類學家定義了這一群體，又被最新的基因標記確認(Cavalli-Sforza, et al., 1994)。這三個主要族群依照緯度原則進化出了更高的智商：歐洲人智商是100；南亞人智商是90；北非人智商是85。[Lynn (2006)給出了詳細的清單，和迄今為止的全球智商分布圖。]
Much of the advancement in human civilization from the time of the Roman Empire to the past century has come from Caucasian groups, with increasing concentration in Europe. Sporre (1990) shows the progress of works of art, architecture, and science from the relatively barren paleolithic period to the present. The first large contributions appeared in early Egypt, spreading northward about 3,000 YBP and then flourishing in Europe for centuries. For whatever reasons, the largest number of significant developments no longer came from China, but were from Europeix and especially from four countries: Italy, France, England, and Germany. Murray (2003) attributes the flourishing of accomplishment to cultural and structural richness of principles, craft, and tools that was self-sustaining. Lynn (2006) speculated that this difference was the result of higher social conformity in East Asian countries. Such shifts in centers of innovation and creativity are related to the mean intelligence of the groups in question, but mostly in a necessary but not sufficient sense. Other factors, such as governmental structure (relative freedom to create, or pressure to comply with policy), the influence of religion, war, and general prosperity account for significant parts of what is seen historically as innovation and creativity.
很多的先進人類文明，從羅馬帝國到后來的幾個世紀，都來自高加索白人種群，多集中在歐洲。Sporre (1990)展示了藝術、建筑和科學從相對落后的舊石器時代到現代的發(fā)展進程。古埃及做出了第一個大的貢獻，3000年前開始向北傳遞，并在歐洲盛行了幾個世紀。無論什么原因，大多數重要發(fā)展不再來自中國，而是來自歐洲，特別是自四個國家：意大利、法國、英格蘭和德國。Murray (2003)把這些成就歸因于文化和豐富的建筑原則，精工細作和自力更生的工具。Lynn (2006)推測，這些不同是東亞國家較高的社會從眾性導致的結果。我們現在討論的平均智力對于創(chuàng)新來講是必要條件，但不是充分條件。其他的因素，例如政府結構（創(chuàng)新的相對自由，或者強迫墨守成規(guī)），地區(qū)影響，戰(zhàn)爭，和大體上的繁榮，從歷史上看都是創(chuàng)新的重要部分。
Intelligence of Negroids
黑人的智力
The populations that remained in Africa differentiated themselves geographically and genetically, as can be easily seen by comparing various sub-groups, such as Masai to Pygmies. Despite various between-group differences found among Negroids, none were subjected to the highly selective pressures of extreme cold and did not develop heat conserving body forms, large crania, or elevated intelligence. Lynn (2006) estimated that the mean IQ of sub-Saharan Africans is 67. Subgroups within this geographic area have reached various IQs that are associated with their breeding groups. Among the lowest of these, the Kalahari Bushmen have a mean IQ of 54 and have a slightly smaller brain size than other sub-Saharan Africans. Pygmies similarly have lower intelligence (IQ 54) than the other Negroid groups. Both Bushmen and Pygmies have lived as hunter-gatherers throughout their history.
非洲的人口從地理上和遺傳學上本身就有很大的不同，通過對比各種亞群體就可以發(fā)現這一點，例如馬賽人和俾格米人。盡管各個黑人種群之間存在差異，但都沒有經受極端寒冷的高選擇壓力的考驗，沒有發(fā)展出保存體溫的形式，大顱骨和高智力。Lynn (2006)估計南沙哈拉沙漠以南的非洲人的平均智商是67。在這一區(qū)域內，亞群體有不同的智商，而智商與族群血源有關。其中最低智商之一的是布希曼人，平均智商只有54，腦容量明顯小于其他撒哈拉以南的非洲人。俾格米人也與其相似，智商也是54，比其他黑人都低。布希曼人和俾格米人自古以來就是靠集體狩獵生存的。
r-K strategies
r-K策略
（譯注：ridical-Keep，r策略也就是激進策略，是機會主義者，很容易出現“突然的爆發(fā)和猛烈的破產”；K策略是保守策略，是保守主義者，當生存環(huán)境發(fā)生災變時，很難迅速恢復，如果再有競爭者抑制，就可能趨向滅絕。---度娘）
As animal species evolved and increased in complexity, the various species adopted different survival strategies, based on a trade-off between reproduction rates and survival rates. [E. O. Wilson (1975) first proposed what is now known as r-K Life History Theory.] This trade-off constitutes a spectrum that, at the extreme r-strategy end (considering vertebrates) is typified by fish and reptiles. These species survive by producing huge numbers of offspring, providing little or no care for them, and numerically overcoming the odds that all of them will be eaten or lost to the elements. At the opposite extreme, the K-strategy end, reproduction rates are very low, often consisting of one individual per reproductive cycle, but with a high survival rate that is enhanced by intense parental care and protection. The K-strategy is seen in vertebrates, where extreme examples include large mammals and primates. The terms r and K are taken from the equation for population growth:
正如物種進化并變得越來越復雜，基于繁殖率和生存率之間的權衡，不同的物種采取不同的生存策略。[E. O. Wilson (1975) 首次提出r-K生命史論]這些權衡就構成了一部圖譜，在r策略的極端典型是魚類和爬行類（只考慮脊椎動物）。（譯注：如果考慮所有動物那么采取最極端激進策略的是昆蟲）。這些物種通過生育大量的后代來生存，很少或者不照顧后代，龐大的數量彌補了被吃掉或自然因素死亡的可能性。另一個極端是K策略，繁殖率非常低，每次甚至只生一個，但是有很高的存活率，完善的養(yǎng)育和保護增加了存活率。K策略在脊椎動物中很常見，極端的例子包括大型哺乳動物和靈長類。r 和 K在下面的人口增長方程中。
dN / dt = rN (K – N) / K
N = 人口規(guī)模
K = 環(huán)境承載能力
r = 人口增長率
There does not appear to be a direct evolutionary driver associated with r-K theory, but Rushton has shown that it offers insight on how group traits evolved, when applied at the sub-species level. He applied Jensen’s default hypothesisx to humans (an extreme example of the K-strategy) and found that the factors that operate over the entire spectrum of r-K are found between races and that the between-species traits are predictive of racial trait differences. Since his extension of r-K theory was limited to humans (a K selected species), he called the application “Differential K Theory” (Rushton, 2004).
Rushton (2004) examined traits of 234 mammalian species and found (via principal component analysis) a single life history factor, with the following loadings:
r-K理論并沒有顯現出直接的進化動力，但是Rushton指出，當應用在亞種群上時，這個理論顯示了種群特性是如何形成的。他使用了Jensen對人類的假設（典型的極端K策略），在r-K圖譜中發(fā)現了那些人類種族之間起作用的因素，人種之間差別的預測也適用于物種之間。因此他擴展了被限制在人類上的r-K理論（一個K策略的物種），他把這種應用叫做“差別K理論”(Rushton, 2004)。
Rushton (2004)測試了234種哺乳動物，發(fā)現了（主成分分析）一個個單一的生命歷程因素，如下表：
brain weight 腦重量 .85
longevity 壽命 .91
gestation time 妊娠時間 .86
birth weight 新生兒重量 .62
litter size 產子數量 -.54
age at first mating 首次交配年齡 .73
duration of lactation 哺乳時間 .67
body weight 體重 .61
body length 體長 .63
These same factors appear at the sub-species (race) level in humans. In each case, the ordering of the item being measured is such that Caucasoids lie between Mongoloids and Negroids. If there was any chance involved, at least some of the factors should align differently. They do not. Examples of ordered variables (Caucasoid values always lying between the two other races) from Table 1, Rushton (1995):
同樣的因素也出現在人類的亞種群里。同樣測量了這些項目，高加索白人在蒙古人和黑人之間。如果有機會改進，至少這些因素中的一些應該調整。例如下面的例子，Rushton (1995):
· Brain size — all forms of measurement
· 腦尺寸—所有形式的測量
· Intelligence
· 智力
· Decision times — chronometric measurements
· 判斷力—精確測定
· Maturation rate — gestation, skeletal development, motor development, dental development, and age in reproduction measures
· 成熟率—妊娠期，骨骼發(fā)育，運動發(fā)育，牙齒發(fā)育，生育年齡
· Personality measures — examples: aggressiveness, cautiousness, dominance, impulsivity, self-concept, etc.
· 性格—例如：攻擊性，謹慎，支配性，沖動，自我認識等等。
· Social measures — marital stability, law abidingness, and mental health
· 社會—婚姻穩(wěn)定性，遵紀守法，心理健康
· Reproductive effort — twinning, hormone levels, sex characteristics, permissive attitudes
· 生育—雙胞胎，技術水平，性別特征，寬容度
Differential K Theory simply shows that the ordering of variables at the sub-species level can be predicted by the application of the degree to which each group is K-selected. It suggests that the evolution of racial groups was not random on a trait by trait basis, but instead followed the same general patterns seen between species.
差異K理論僅僅顯示了亞物種變量的排序，能夠預測每個K選擇種群。這表明物種的進化不是隨機的基于特性到特性的變化，相反的是遵循一個相同的模式。
Since Differential K Theory identifies different reproductive strategies on a within-group basis, the question might be raises as to which strategy is most effective. Arguing from one point of view, the population sizes of China and Japan (at various points in time) might imply that the more K-selective strategy has been dominant. But present population trends have favored less K-selective groups, especially as a result of very low fecundity in industrialized nations. Lynn and Harvey (2007) found a significant global dysgenic effect, such that the world correlation of IQ and fertility is – 0.73. This has resulted in an estimated loss of about .86 IQ points over the past half centuryxi and is expected to produce a larger decline of 1.28 points over the next fifty years. The estimates from Lynn and Harvey suggest that global IQ is declining because the more r-selected population groups are increasing in numbers, while the more K-selected groups are declining; in a Darwinian sense, r-selection wins. When Lynn delivered a paper on this subject in 2007 (International Society for Intelligence Research, annual conference), he pointed to the rapid declines in fertility throughout Europe, standing at well below replacement level. Fertility in the United States stands at the replacement level.
差異K理論區(qū)分種群內在不同的繁殖策略，問題就是哪個策略是最有效的。一種觀點是，以中國和日本的人口規(guī)模（在各個時間點上）可能意味著偏K選擇策略是占統治地位的。但是目前的人口趨勢可能對較少K選擇的族群有利，特別是低生育率的工業(yè)國家。Lynn 和 Harvey (2007)發(fā)現了一個對全人類不利的現象，全世界智商和生育力的相關性是-0.73。在過去的半個世紀，估計已經導致了智商損失0.86個點，在下一個50年預計會進一步下降1.28個點。Lynn 和 Harvey的研究指出全球智商下降是因為r選擇策略的人口族群大量繁殖，而K選擇策略的族群正在下降；按照達爾文原理，r選擇勝利了。Lynn在2007年就這一研究方向發(fā)表了論文（國際社會智商研究和年度會議），他指出全歐洲的生育率正在下降，持續(xù)維持在更替水平以下。美國的生育率則剛好在更替水平上。
Robust body
強壯的身體
Among the ordered, between-group, factors in the list above are longevity and brain size. These, and some other factors, have emerged from the study of human intelligence, all connecting the more robust body to higher intelligence. General health, body symmetry, height, grip strength, and vital capacity all correlate positively with IQ.xii Some of these correlates (height, for example) are believed to be entirely the result of selective mating.xiii Others are presumably intrinsic genetic factors that are in some way related to a robust body. A negative trait explanation might be offered, which would be that the presence of deleterious genes cause multiple disruptive consequences to the body. This latter explanation is more likely to fit at the low end of the intelligence distribution and would be less effective in explaining the correlation over the full distribution of intelligence.
壽命和腦容量以及其他的因素在人類智力的研究中已有所體現，所有的都把身體更強壯與更聰明聯系起來。大體健康，身體對稱，身高，握力和肺活量都確實和智商相關。這些關系中的一些是交配選擇的結果（例如身高）。其他因素則和身體強壯相關的遺傳因素有關。有人提出一種負面特性解釋，負面特性指有害基因的存在引起身體的多種破壞。這種新解釋更可能在適合智力分布中智力差的那一部分族群。在解釋全部智力分布方面沒有效果。
One of the particularly interesting demonstrations of the robust body concept is the finding that more intelligent individuals have more symmetric bodies. The measurement used is known as “fluctuating asymmetry” (FA). It is derived by measuring finger length, and dimensions at the ankle, wrists, etc. where there is little fatty tissue. Increasing FA means more body asymmetry.xiv Bates (2007) found FA correlations with IQ for two groups: -0.41 and -0.29; these are within the general range of other FA studies. Furlow et al. (1997) and Prokosch et al. (2005) both hypothesized that the variance in g is a consequence of the variance in a general fitness throughout the body and brain.
強壯的身體這一概念的一個有趣的現象是越聰明的個體，身體就越對稱。測量的方法叫做“波動不對稱性”，簡稱FA。通過測量手指長度，踝關節(jié)，手腕等等脂肪很少的地方。不對稱性值越大，意味著越不對稱。Bates (2007)發(fā)現不對稱性與智商有兩組相關系數：-0.41 和 -0.29；其他的FA研究也大概在這個范圍內。Furlow 等人 (1997) 和 Prokosch 等人 (2005)假設g的變化是身體和大腦總體健康狀況變化的結果。（譯注：g因素理論：general facts，分析被試者的各類測驗成績時，發(fā)現有一個因素與各類工作均有關，稱為普通智力因素（G）；但有些人數學測驗成績較好，而語文測驗成績較差；另一些人則相反。他認為這些差別或特長提示另一種因素的存在，即特殊智力因素（S）。）
The presumption is that FA serves as an indicator of the degree of developmental instability in the individual. Developmental instability would reasonably stand to also account for some of the other physical correlates to intelligence, such as measures of strength, general health, longevity, etc. As of 2008, the causal relationship between FA and g has not been established. Thoma et al. (2005) found that FA and brain volume both correlated with g, but that they did not correlate with each other and Johnson et al. (2008) did not find a correlation between FA and g. Consequently, it is not possible to establish probable causation at this time. The thing that can be concluded is that multiple fitness related variables show correlations with intelligence. Whether greater fitness (per these variables) has played a role as an evolutionary driver (in the Darwinian sense) must remain speculative.
我們推測可能不對稱性反映了個體的發(fā)育基礎不穩(wěn)定度。發(fā)育的不穩(wěn)定度合理的解釋了其他與智力相關的身體部分，例如力量，總體的健康，身高等。2008年起，不對稱性與g之間的因果關系還沒有被建立起來。Thoma 等人 (2005)發(fā)現不對稱性和腦容量合起來與g相關。但是彼此之間沒有相關性，Johnson 等人 (2008)沒有發(fā)現不對稱性與g相關。因此，現在不可能建立因果關系。能夠推斷出來的就是與多重健康指標相關的變量與智力有關。是否越健康就越能扮演進化驅動者的角色這一點依然僅僅是推測。
Conclusions
結論
Intelligence increased throughout millions of years of evolution, showing increasing presence as animals became more biologically complex. This process is most apparent in brain size and the brain size to body size ratio. As various hominid species appeared, the same process of increasing brain size continued. Today human brain size remains predictive of intelligence for all population groups.
在百萬年的進化歷程中，智力得到了增長，并且在持續(xù)增長，正如動物在生物學上變得越來越復雜。這一過程最顯著的就是大腦尺寸以及大腦占身體的比重。從各種原始人種群出現開始，腦容量增長這一進程始終在持續(xù)。今天人類大腦的尺寸依然可以預測所有人群的智力。
Although there were presumably numerous evolutionary filters that influenced the development of human intelligence along slightly different lines, winter weather stands out as the most salient single force, as is seen in the strong correlation between winter temperatures and the intelligence of various indigenous populations.
雖然可以推測有很多進化過濾器影響了人類智力的發(fā)展，使其走上了明顯不同的進化之路，冬季是最明顯的一支力量，可以看到，冬季的溫度與各個土著族群的智力之間有很強的相關性。
The factors that caused different developmental paths in separate races, follow the same r-K reproductive strategy that is found throughout the animal kingdom. The absence of exceptions to this process suggest an orderly relationship between races, as they adapted to various local environmental conditions. This underlying factor was mediated in large part by the severe demands of weather and other survival related environmental conditions.
引起各個種族走上不同的發(fā)展道路的因素都遵循同樣的r-K繁殖策略理論，這在整個動物王國中都可以發(fā)現。在這一過程中沒有例外，顯示出了種族之間的排序關系，正如他們適應了各種各樣不同的環(huán)境條件。這一最優(yōu)先的潛在因素在很大程度上通過嚴酷的氣候和其他生死攸關的環(huán)境條件表現出來。
